The DOI matches its Crossref record; 118 of the 122 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Why We Need a New Theory of Government
Abstract
In the 1970s I was among a group of scholars endlessly debating theories of the state. Others in the discussion were my recent predecessor as APSA President, Theda Skocpol, and my immediate successor, Ira Katznelson. What intrigued us was a vast literature, grounded in neo-Marxism and covering huge swaths of history and geography. Nearly all the important books and articles were by sociologists and historians, but with Structure and Change in Economic History, my then-colleague, economist Douglass North, transformed the debate by using economic models of transaction costs and property rights to model the state's role in economic prosperity over time. Most political scientists now acknowledge the importance of this perspective, but it nonetheless helped precipitate twenty years of divergence between historical and new economic institutionalists.Margaret Levi is Jere L. Bacharach Professor of International Studies in the Department of Political Science, University of Washington, Seattle (mlevi@u.washington.edu). Among her books are the single-authored Consent, Dissent and Patriotism (1997) and Of Rule and Revenue (1988) and the co-authored Cooperation Without Trust? (2005) and Analytic Narratives (1998). Many people offered me comments. I did not always take their advice, but I am grateful to Amit Ahuja, Paloma Aquilar, Marcelo Bergman, Maureen Eger, Ann Gryzmala-Busse, Bea Kelleigh, Bob Kaplan, Edgar Kiser, Victor Lapuente-Giné, Michael Lipsky, Kenneth Kollman, José-Maria Maravall, Peter May, Leonardo Morlino, Steve Pfaff, Kate Pflaumer, Frances Fox Piven, Christoph Pohlmann, Nancy Rosenblum, Jean-Laurent Rosenthal, Bo Rothstein, Susan Stokes, Katherine Stovel, Joan Tronto, and Ashutosh Varshney. My greatest debt is to the two graduate students who read and commented on several drafts as well as located the materials I needed to write this presentation: John Ahlquist and Audrey Sacks.
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“Non-repressive compliance can only be generated if the population receives something in return (Levi, 2006).”
From The Ba'athist blackout? Selective goods provision and political violence in the Syrian civil war (2015) · cites this paper as Levi, 2006
In the citing paper
“Ruling elites cannot maintain their grip on power through violence and repression alone.”
From The Ba'athist blackout? Selective goods provision and political violence in the Syrian civil war (2015) · cites this paper as Levi, 2006: 7
Citations
Cites
Institutions, Institutional Change and Economic Performance
Munger, M. C., & North, D. C. (1991) · Southern Economic Journal · doi:10.2307/1060065 · Cited by 25,224
Governing the Commons: The Evolution of Institutions for Collective Action
Field, B. C., & Elinor Ostrom, B. (1992) · Land Economics · doi:10.2307/3146384 · Cited by 19,100
Social Choice and Individual Values
Schnepp, G. J., & Arrow, K. (1951) · Economica · doi:10.2307/2549613 · Cited by 10,000
Journal of Economic Literature
Durlauf, S. N. (2019) · AEA Papers and Proceedings · doi:10.1257/pandp.109.633 · Cited by 7,666
Lukes, S. (1974) · Power · doi:10.1007/978-0-230-80257-5_2 · Cited by 6,654
Rodrik, D., Subramanian, A., & Trebbi, F. (2004) · Journal of Economic Growth · doi:10.1023/b:joeg.0000031425.72248.85 · Cited by 5,423
North, D. C., & Weingast, B. R. (1989) · The Journal of Economic History · doi:10.1017/s0022050700009451 · Cited by 5,300
Tyler, T. R. (2006) · doi:10.1515/9781400828609 · Cited by 5,156
Structure and Change in Economic History
George, P., & North, D. C. (1983) · Canadian Journal of Economics/Revue canadienne d économique · doi:10.2307/135165 · Cited by 4,557
Domination and the Arts of Resistance
Scott, J. C. (2017) · Yale University Press eBooks · doi:10.12987/9780300153569 · Cited by 4,359
Research works printed but not linked: 5
- Przeworski, 2004, Political Economist, 12, 1
- 10.2307/2585925 · DOI
- Acemoglou, 2005, Political Economist, 12, 4
- Weingast, 1995, Journal of Law, Economics, and Organization, 7, 1
- Block, 1977, Socialist Revolution, 33, 6
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Schmidt, V. A. (2010) · European Political Science Review · doi:10.1017/s175577390999021x · Cited by 1,726
Conceptualizing Legitimacy, Measuring Legitimating Beliefs
Levi, M., Sacks, A., & Tyler, T. (2009) · American Behavioral Scientist · doi:10.1177/0002764209338797 · Cited by 729
Self-citationOrdering Power: Contentious Politics and Authoritarian Leviathans in Southeast Asia.
Slater, D. (2013) · Southeast Asian Economies · doi:10.1355/ae30-2h · Cited by 586
Quality of Government: What You Get
Holmberg, S., Rothstein, B., & Nasiritousi, N. (2009) · Annual Review of Political Science · doi:10.1146/annurev-polisci-100608-104510 · Cited by 372
Leadership: What It Means, What It Does, and What We Want to Know About It
Ahlquist, J. S., & Levi, M. (2011) · Annual Review of Political Science · doi:10.1146/annurev-polisci-042409-152654 · Cited by 279
Self-citationLegitimating beliefs: Sources and indicators
Levi, M., & Sacks, A. (2009) · Regulation & Governance · doi:10.1111/j.1748-5991.2009.01066.x · Cited by 280
Self-citationMilitias, Ideology, and the State
Staniland, P. (2015) · Journal of Conflict Resolution · doi:10.1177/0022002715576749 · Cited by 234
Cooperation and Collective Action in the Cultural Evolution of Complex Societies
Carballo, D. M., Roscoe, P. B., & Feinman, G. M. (2012) · Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory · doi:10.1007/s10816-012-9147-2 · Cited by 238
State and Development: The Need for a Reappraisal of the Current Literature
Bardhan, P. (2016) · Journal of Economic Literature · doi:10.1257/jel.20151239 · Cited by 239
The Qualities of Leadership: Direction, Communication, and Obfuscation
Dewan, T., & Myatt, D. P. (2008) · American Political Science Review · doi:10.1017/s0003055408080234 · Cited by 194
Can states buy peace? Social welfare spending and civil conflicts
Taydaş, Z., & Peksen, D. (2012) · Journal of Peace Research · doi:10.1177/0022343311431286 · Cited by 183
The American Precariat: U.S. Capitalism in Comparative Perspective
Thelen, K. (2019) · Perspectives on Politics · doi:10.1017/s1537592718003419 · Cited by 164
Fjelde, H., & Nilsson, D. (2012) · Journal of Conflict Resolution · doi:10.1177/0022002712439496 · Cited by 160
Coercion, Co-optation, or Cooperation?
Fjelde, H., & de Soysa, I. (2009) · Conflict Management and Peace Science · doi:10.1177/0738894208097664 · Cited by 147
Political Strategies and Fiscal Retrenchment: Evidence from Four Countries
Wenzelburger, G. (2011) · West European Politics · doi:10.1080/01402382.2011.572385 · Cited by 127
Good Governance as a Concept, and Why This Matters for Development PolicyPreprint
Gisselquist, R. M. (2012) · RePEc: Research Papers in Economics · Cited by 119
Continuity by Surprise: Explaining Institutional Stability in Contemporary Peru
Vergara, A., & Encinas, D. (2016) · Latin American Research Review · doi:10.1353/lar.2016.0006 · Cited by 118
Warren, T. C. (2015) · Journal of Peace Research · doi:10.1177/0022343314558102 · Cited by 119
Governance and Economic Growth: Evidence from 14 Latin America and Caribbean Countries
Azam, M. (2021) · Journal of the Knowledge Economy · doi:10.1007/s13132-021-00781-2 · Cited by 106
Not by the Sword Alone: Soft Power, Mass Media, and the Production of State Sovereignty
Warren, T. C. (2014) · International Organization · doi:10.1017/s0020818313000350 · Cited by 111
Cooptation and non-cooptation: elite strategies in response to social protest
Holdo, M. (2019) · Social movement studies · doi:10.1080/14742837.2019.1577133 · Cited by 110
Barma, N. H. (2016) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781316718513 · Cited by 94
Slater, D. (2008) · Studies in Comparative International Development · doi:10.1007/s12116-008-9026-8 · Cited by 92
From Political Economy to Political Analysis
Hudson, D., & Leftwich, A. (2014) · UCL Discovery (University College London) · Cited by 89
Property, Predation, and Protection
Markus, S. (2014) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781316104743 · Cited by 88
Menocal, A. R. (2011) · Third World Quarterly · doi:10.1080/01436597.2011.610567 · Cited by 87
The Ba'athist blackout? Selective goods provision and political violence in the Syrian civil war
De Juan, A., & Bank, A. (2015) · Journal of Peace Research · doi:10.1177/0022343314559437 · Cited by 81
Leading the Party: Coordination, Direction, and Communication
Dewan, T., & Myatt, D. P. (2006) · American Political Science Review · doi:10.1017/s0003055407070451 · Cited by 81
Yahyaoui, I., & Bouchoucha, N. (2021) · African Development Review · doi:10.1111/1467-8268.12489 · Cited by 75
Exogenous Shocks, Foreign Aid, and Civil War
Savun, B., & Tirone, D. C. (2012) · International Organization · doi:10.1017/s0020818312000136 · Cited by 67
Sacks, A., & Levi, M. (2010) · Social Forces · doi:10.1353/sof.2010.0044 · Cited by 71
Self-citationOpening Old Bottles in Search of New Wine: On Nondemocratic Legitimacy in the Middle East
Schlumberger, O. (2010) · Middle East Critique · doi:10.1080/19436149.2010.514473 · Cited by 71
Introduction to the Special Issue on the Evolution of Institutions
Blyth, M. M., Hodgson, G. M., Lewis, O. A., & Steinmo, S. H. (2011) · Journal of Institutional Economics · doi:10.1017/s1744137411000270 · Cited by 71
Flückiger, M., Ludwig, M., & Önder, A. S. (2018) · The Economic Journal · doi:10.1111/ecoj.12638 · Cited by 68
The Leader as Catalyst - On Leadership and the Mechanics of Institutional ChangePreprint
Majumdar, S., & MUKAND, S. W. (2008) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.1156276 · Cited by 66
New democracies and the risk of civil conflict
Cook, S. J., & Savun, B. (2016) · Journal of Peace Research · doi:10.1177/0022343316660756 · Cited by 64
The Lancet Commission on peaceful societies through health equity and gender equality
Percival, V., Thoms, O. T., Oppenheim, B., Rowlands, D., Chisadza, C., Fewer, S., Yamey, G., Alexander, A. C., Allaham, C. L., Causevic, S., et al. (2023) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(23)01348-x · Cited by 55
Foreign Aid and State Legitimacy
Blair, R., & Roessler, P. G. (2021) · World Politics · doi:10.1017/s004388712000026x · Cited by 60
Deliberative Democracy and the Neglected Dimension of Leadership
Kuyper, J. W. (2012) · Journal of Deliberative Democracy · doi:10.16997/jdd.126 · Cited by 50
Governance matters: an ecological association between governance and child mortality
Lin, R., Chien, L.-C., Chen, Y., & Chan, C. (2014) · International Health · doi:10.1093/inthealth/ihu018 · Cited by 53
Taking evolution seriously in political science
Lewis, O. A., & Steinmo, S. H. (2010) · Theory in Biosciences · doi:10.1007/s12064-010-0097-5 · Cited by 49
Leftwich, A., & Kunal Sen, A. (2011) · Journal of International Development · doi:10.1002/jid.1773 · Cited by 47
Anti-Corruption: A Big-Bang TheoryPreprint
Rothstein, B. (2009) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.1338614 · Cited by 47
On the rhetorical strategies of leaders: Speaking clearly, standing back, and stepping down
Dewan, T., & Myatt, D. P. (2012) · Journal of Theoretical Politics · doi:10.1177/0951629811429006 · Cited by 46
Assessing Classic Maya multi-scalar household inequality in southern Belize
Thompson, A. E., Feinman, G. M., & Prufer, K. M. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0248169 · Cited by 43
Moral Collapse and State Failure: A View From the Past
Blanton, R. E., Feinman, G. M., Kowalewski, S. A., & Fargher, L. F. (2020) · Frontiers in Political Science · doi:10.3389/fpos.2020.568704 · Cited by 42
Formulación de un modelo de liderazgo desde las teorías organizacionales
Universidad del Valle, C. C., & García-Solarte, M. (2015) · ENTRAMADO · doi:10.18041/entramado.2015v11n1.21111 · Cited by 41
The Fiscal Economy of Good Government
Blanton, R. E., Fargher, L. F., Feinman, G. M., & Kowalewski, S. A. (2021) · Current Anthropology · doi:10.1086/713286 · Cited by 41
Smith, M. E. (2015) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781316105436.003 · Cited by 39
Interpreting the comparative history of fiscal regimes
Kiser, E. V., & Levi, M. (2015) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781316105436.019 · Cited by 34
Self-citationWhy do civil wars occur? Another look at the theoretical dichotomy of opportunity versus grievance
TAYDAS, Z., ENIA, J., & JAMES, P. (2011) · Review of International Studies · doi:10.1017/s026021051100012x · Cited by 32
Of democratic governance and revenue: Participatory institutions and tax generation in Brazil
Touchton, M. M., Wampler, B., & Peixoto, T. C. (2020) · Governance · doi:10.1111/gove.12552 · Cited by 35
Large-Scale Collective Action to Avoid an Amazon Tipping Point – Key Actors and Interventions
Lima, M. G. B., Harring, N., Jagers, S. C., Löfgren, Å., Persson, U. M., Sjöstedt, M., Brülde, B., Langlet, D., Steffen, W., & Alpízar, F. (2020) · Current Research in Environmental Sustainability · doi:10.1016/j.crsust.2021.100048 · Cited by 31
Election fairness and government legitimacy in Afghanistan
Berman, E., Callen, M. J., Gibson, C. C., Long, J. D., & Rezaee, A. (2019) · Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization · doi:10.1016/j.jebo.2019.10.011 · Cited by 25
Air pollution, governance quality, and health outcomes: evidence from developing countries
Ahmad, N. A., Ismail, N. W., Sidique, S. F., & Mazlan, N. S. (2023) · Environmental Science and Pollution Research · doi:10.1007/s11356-023-25183-6 · Cited by 24
Sjöstedt, M., & Linell, A. (2020) · World Development · doi:10.1016/j.worlddev.2020.105333 · Cited by 20
Life of Brian Revisited: Assessing Informational and Non-Informational Leadership Tools
Baturo, A., & Mikhaylov, S. (2013) · Political Science Research and Methods · doi:10.1017/psrm.2013.3 · Cited by 19
Good governance: Contemporary issues in political philosophy
Kirby, N. (2021) · Philosophy Compass · doi:10.1111/phc3.12790 · Cited by 18
Feinman, G. M. (2018) · Cliodynamics The Journal of Quantitative History and Cultural Evolution · doi:10.21237/c7clio9239449 · Cited by 18
“Hey, Mayors, Leave Them Kids Alone”
Gofen, A., Bresler-Gonen, R., & Hoss-Golan, E. (2013) · Urban Affairs Review · doi:10.1177/1078087413501637 · Cited by 18
The Gradient of Governance: Distance and Disengagement in Indian Villages
Krishna, A., & Schober, G. S. (2014) · The Journal of Development Studies · doi:10.1080/00220388.2014.887692 · Cited by 17
Corruption, Government Effectiveness and Human Development in Sub-Saharan Africa
Akinbode, S., Olabisi, J., Adegbite, R., Aderemi, T., & Alawode, A. (2020) · Journal for the Advancement of Developing Economies · doi:10.32873/unl.dc.jade912 · Cited by 14
Feinman, G. M., & Carballo, D. M. (2022) · Journal of Social Computing · doi:10.23919/jsc.2021.0015 · Cited by 11
Bagaimanakah Persepsi Keterpercayaan Masyarakat terhadap Elit Politik?
Haryanto, H. C., & Rahmania, T. (2015) · Jurnal Psikologi · doi:10.22146/jpsi.9913 · Cited by 12
Teacher's PAT? Multiple-Role Principal-Agent Theory, Education Politics, and Bureaucrat Power
Vanhuysse, P., & Sulitzeanu‐Kenan, R. (2007) · Critical Studies in Education · doi:10.1080/17508480802056502 · Cited by 11
Public Administration in Ethiopia
Debela, B. K., Bouckaert, G., Ayenew, M., & Gemechu, D. T. (2020) · Leuven University Press eBooks · doi:10.11116/9789461663634 · Cited by 11
Sacks, A., Rahman, E., Turkewitz, J. A., Buehler, M., & Saleh, I. (2014) · doi:10.1596/1813-9450-6977 · Cited by 10
Preventing Markets from Self-Destruction: The Quality of Government FactorPreprint
Rothstein, B. (2009) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.1328819 · Cited by 9
The Role of Foreign Direct Investment in Post-Conflict Economic Recovery and Peace-Building
Bak, D., Lee, H., & Biglaiser, G. (2024) · Foreign Policy Analysis · doi:10.1093/fpa/orae032 · Cited by 8
El (casi inexistente) debate conceptual sobre la calidad del gobierno
Cejudo, G. M., Sánchez, G., & Solís, D. Z. (2009) · LA Referencia (Red Federada de Repositorios Institucionales de Publicaciones Científicas) · Cited by 8
Can markets be expected to prevent themselves from self‐destruction?
Rothstein, B. (2011) · Regulation & Governance · doi:10.1111/j.1748-5991.2011.01108.x · Cited by 8
Bideleux, R. (2007) · Perspectives on European Politics and Society · doi:10.1080/15705850701322335 · Cited by 8
Gebresilassie, Y. H., Gebrihet, H. G., & Woldu, G. T. (2024) · Journal of Social Economics Research · doi:10.18488/35.v11i1.3609 · Cited by 7
Costello, M. (2018) · Social Sciences · doi:10.3390/socsci7030039 · Cited by 7
Sins of Omission and Commission : The Quality of Government and Civil Conflict
Fjelde, H. (2009) · Uppsala University Publications (Uppsala University) · Cited by 7
Lin, Y., Lu, S., Yin, G., & Yuan, B. (2025) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su17156787 · Cited by 6
Chen, J. C., & Roberts, R. W. (2023) · Financial Accountability and Management · doi:10.1111/faam.12380 · Cited by 5
Szabó, K. (2022) · Journal of Development Studies · doi:10.1080/00220388.2022.2048651 · Cited by 3
Public Sector Reforms in the United Arab Emirates: Antecedents and Outcomes
Sarker, A. E., & Athmay, A. A. A. R. A. A. (2019) · Public Administration Quarterly · doi:10.1177/073491491904300302 · Cited by 5
Leadership in Europe’s Public Sector
Drumaux, A., & Joyce, P. (2017) · Palgrave Macmillan UK eBooks · doi:10.1057/978-1-137-55269-3_6 · Cited by 5
Repression, co-optation and insurgency: Pakistan’s FATA, Southern Thailand and Papua, Indonesia
Wilson, C., & Akhtar, S. (2019) · Third World Quarterly · doi:10.1080/01436597.2018.1557012 · Cited by 5
Mesoamerican States and Empires
Feinman, G. M. (2012) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195390933.013.0054 · Cited by 5
The Power of Ideas and Discourse in Political Analysis
Schmidt, V. A. (2026) · doi:10.1093/9780197902455.001.0001 · Cited by 4
RECLAIMING THE GOVERNMENT FOR THE SOVEREIGNTY OF THE PEOPLE
Yunanto, S. E. (2021) · GOVERNABILITAS (Jurnal Ilmu Pemerintahan Semesta) · doi:10.47431/governabilitas.v2i2.122 · Cited by 4
Political Philosophy in Political Science: Sixty Years on
Leca, J. (2010) · International Political Science Review · doi:10.1177/0192512110389152 · Cited by 3
American Politics and Political Science in an Era of Growing Racial Diversity and Economic Disparity
Hero, R. E. (2016) · Perspectives on Politics · doi:10.1017/s1537592715003199 · Cited by 3
Leadership, Law and Development
Baxter, J. (2018) · The Law and Development Review · doi:10.1515/ldr-2018-0046 · Cited by 3
Constraining the state's ability to employ force: the standing army debates, 1697–99
Humphrey, S., & Hansen, B. A. (2010) · Journal of Institutional Economics · doi:10.1017/s1744137409990348 · Cited by 3
Evaluating Governance Indexes: Critical and Less Critical QuestionsPreprint
Gisselquist, R. M. (2013) · RePEc: Research Papers in Economics · Cited by 3
Coercion and Social Welfare in Public FinancePreprint
Martínez-Vázquez, J., Winer, S. L., & Ackert, L. F. (2014) · RePEc: Research Papers in Economics · Cited by 3
Taxation and Governance in Contemporary China
Lü, X., & Zhang, C. (2026) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781009509701 · Cited by 2
Armed Conflicts With Al-Qaeda and the Islamic State: The Role of Repression and State Capacity
Krause, D. (2023) · Journal of Conflict Resolution · doi:10.1177/00220027231176237 · Cited by 2
Lee, M., & Nam, Y. (2024) · International Journal of Health Governance · doi:10.1108/ijhg-10-2023-0099 · Cited by 2
Corruption, Government Effectiveness, and Financial Development
Alshubiri, F. (2023) · Advances in finance, accounting, and economics book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-6684-8587-3.ch007 · Cited by 2
Kelly, I. (2016) · Dublin City University Open Access Institutional Repository (Dublin City University) · Cited by 2
Credible Commitment and Economic Growth in Africa
Seifu, M. (2009) · Dublin City University Open Access Institutional Repository (Dublin City University) · Cited by 2
Lee, S., & Kim, H. (2025) · Third World Quarterly · doi:10.1080/01436597.2025.2599321 · Cited by 1
Ficek, R. (2023) · Teka Komisji Politologii i Stosunków Międzynarodowych · doi:10.17951/teka.2022.17.1.23-36 · Cited by 1
Militarized elections and citizens’ support for democratic rights: evidence from India
Deglow, A., & Fjelde, H. (2024) · Democratization · doi:10.1080/13510347.2024.2421831 · Cited by 1
Steuern in der Vergleichenden Politikwissenschaft
Genschel, P., Lierse, H., & Seelkopf, L. (2016) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-658-02338-6_52 · Cited by 1
Metadata
- Authors
- Levi, M.
- Affiliations
- University of Washington (US)
- Corresponding author
- Levi, Margaret
- ORCID
- Levi, Margaret
- Venue
- Perspectives on Politics
- Publisher
- Cambridge University Press (CUP)
- Published
- 2006-02-24
- Volume
- 4
- Issue
- 01
- ISSN
- 1537-5927 (ISSN-L)
- 1541-0986
- OpenAlex
- W2004769985
- Cited by
- 149
- References
- 122
- Citations by year
- 2026: 20 · 2025: 3 · 2024: 6 · 2023: 7 · 2022: 4 · 2021: 9 · 2020: 6 · 2019: 7 · 2018: 7 · 2017: 4 · 2016: 9 · 2015: 8 · 2014: 8 · 2013: 7 · 2012: 8
- FWCI
- 40.67
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Perspectives on Politics (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Political Science and International Relations › Globalization and political ideologies
- Social Sciences › Political Science and International Relations › Political Science Research and Education
- Social Sciences › Economics, Econometrics and Finance › Economics and Econometrics › Economic Theory and Institutions
- Keywords
- state theory, neo-Marxism, historical institutionalism, transaction costs, property rights, Douglass North, Theda Skocpol
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review