Assessing PM 2.5 Exposures with High Spatiotemporal Resolution across the Continental United States
Open accessAbstract
A number of models have been developed to estimate PM2.5 exposure, including satellite-based aerosol optical depth (AOD) models, land-use regression, or chemical transport model simulation, all with both strengths and weaknesses. Variables like normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), surface reflectance, absorbing aerosol index, and meteoroidal fields are also informative about PM2.5 concentrations. Our objective is to establish a hybrid model which incorporates multiple approaches and input variables to improve model performance. To account for complex atmospheric mechanisms, we used a neural network for its capacity to model nonlinearity and interactions. We used convolutional layers, which aggregate neighboring information, into a neural network to account for spatial and temporal autocorrelation. We trained the neural network for the continental United States from 2000 to 2012 and tested it with left out monitors. Ten-fold cross-validation revealed a good model performance with a total R(2) of 0.84 on the left out monitors. Regional R(2) could be even higher for the Eastern and Central United States. Model performance was still good at low PM2.5 concentrations. Then, we used the trained neural network to make daily predictions of PM2.5 at 1 km × 1 km grid cells. This model allows epidemiologists to access PM2.5 exposure in both the short-term and the long-term.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
[179] use deep neural networks to estimate the effects of aerosols on human health, while [148] use them to estimate the effects of solar geoengineering on agriculture.
“For example, [179] use deep neural networks to estimate the effects of aerosols on human health, while [148] use them to estimate the effects of solar geoengineering on agriculture.”
From Tackling climate change with machine learning (2023) · cites this paper as [179]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
Neural Networks for Pattern Recognition
Bishop, C. M. (1995) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198538493.001.0001 · Cited by 12,287 · see citing works
Lim, S. S., Vos, T., Flaxman, A. D., Danaei, G., Shibuya, K., Adair-Rohani, H., AlMazroa, M. A., Amann, M., Anderson, H. R., Andrews, K. G., et al. (2012) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(12)61766-8 · Cited by 11,805 · see citing works
World map of the Köppen-Geiger climate classification updated
Kottek, M., Grieser, J., Beck, C., Rudolf, B., & Rubel, F. (2006) · Meteorologische Zeitschrift · doi:10.1127/0941-2948/2006/0130 · Cited by 11,456 · see citing works
Health Effects of Fine Particulate Air Pollution: Lines that Connect
Pope, C. A., & Dockery, D. W. (2006) · Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association · doi:10.1080/10473289.2006.10464485 · Cited by 6,678 · see citing works
The Handbook of brain theory and neural networks
(1996) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.33-4484 · Cited by 3,913 · see citing works
The MODIS Aerosol Algorithm, Products, and Validation
Remer, L. A., Kaufman, Y. J., Tanré, D., Mattoo, S., Chu, D. A., Martins, J. V., Li, R. ‐., Ichoku, C. M., Levy, R. C., Kleidman, R. G., et al. (2005) · Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences · doi:10.1175/jas3385.1 · Cited by 3,125 · see citing works
Fine Particulate Air Pollution and Hospital Admission for Cardiovascular and Respiratory Diseases
Dominici, F., Peng, R. D., Bell, M. L., Pham, L. D., McDermott, A., Zeger, S. L., & Samet, J. M. (2006) · JAMA · doi:10.1001/jama.295.10.1127 · Cited by 2,640 · see citing works
Bey, I., Jacob, D. J., Yantosca, R. M., Logan, J. A., Field, B. D., Fiore, A. M., Li, Q., Liu, H. Y., Mickley, L. J., & Schultz, M. G. (2001) · Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres · doi:10.1029/2001jd000807 · Cited by 2,491 · see citing works
Formation of Secondary Organic Aerosols Through Photooxidation of Isoprene
Claeys, M., Graham, B., Vas, G., et al. (2004) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1092805 · Cited by 1,703 · see citing works
van Donkelaar, A., Martin, R. V., Brauer, M. D., Kahn, R. A., Levy, R. C., Verduzco, C., & Villeneuve, P. J. (2010) · Environmental Health Perspectives · doi:10.1289/ehp.0901623 · Cited by 1,629 · see citing works
Is Daily Mortality Associated Specifically with Fine Particles?
Schwartz, J., Dockery, D. W., & Neas, L. M. (1996) · Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association · doi:10.1080/10473289.1996.10467528 · Cited by 1,561 · see citing works
Self-citationIncreased Particulate Air Pollution and the Triggering of Myocardial Infarction
Peters, A., Dockery, D. W., Muller, J. E., & Mittleman, M. A. (2001) · Circulation · doi:10.1161/01.cir.103.23.2810 · Cited by 1,470 · see citing works
Reduction in Fine Particulate Air Pollution and Mortality
Laden, F., Schwartz, J. D., Speizer, F. E., & Dockery, D. W. (2006) · American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine · doi:10.1164/rccm.200503-443oc · Cited by 1,419 · see citing works
Self-citationA review of land-use regression models to assess spatial variation of outdoor air pollution
Hoek, G., Beelen, R. M. J., de Hoogh, K., Vienneau, D., Gulliver, J., Fischer, P. H., & Briggs, D. J. (2008) · Atmospheric Environment · doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2008.05.057 · Cited by 1,406 · see citing works
Park, R. J., Jacob, D. J., Field, B. D., et al. (2004) · Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres · doi:10.1029/2003jd004473 · Cited by 1,186 · see citing works
Global distribution of UV‐absorbing aerosols from Nimbus 7/TOMS data
Herman, J. R., Bhartia, P. K., Torres, O., Hsu, C. N., Seftor, C. J., & Celarier, E. A. (1997) · Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres · doi:10.1029/96jd03680 · Cited by 1,133 · see citing works
MODIS: advanced facility instrument for studies of the Earth as a system
Salomonson, V. V., Barnes, W. L., Maymon, P. W., et al. (1989) · IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing · doi:10.1109/36.20292 · Cited by 1,099 · see citing works
King, M. D., Kaufman, Y. J., Menzel, W. P., et al. (1992) · IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing · doi:10.1109/36.124212 · Cited by 1,070 · see citing works
Torres, O., Bhartia, P. K., Herman, J. R., Ahmad, Z., & Gleason, J. F. (1998) · Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres · doi:10.1029/98jd00900 · Cited by 1,004 · see citing works
Science algorithms of the EPA Models-3 community multi-scale air quality (CMAQ) modeling system
Byun, D. W. (1999) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 954 · see citing works
Aerosols and surface UV products from Ozone Monitoring Instrument observations: An overview
Torres, O., Tanskanen, A., Veihelmann, B., et al. (2007) · Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres · doi:10.1029/2007jd008809 · Cited by 929 · see citing works
van Donkelaar, A., Martin, R. V., Brauer, M. D., & Boys, B. L. (2014) · Environmental Health Perspectives · doi:10.1289/ehp.1408646 · Cited by 897 · see citing works
Wang, J., & Christopher, S. A. (2003) · Geophysical Research Letters · doi:10.1029/2003gl018174 · Cited by 880 · see citing works
Isoprene Emission from Plants: Why and How
Sharkey, T. D., WIBERLEY, A. E., & DONOHUE, A. R. (2007) · Annals of Botany · doi:10.1093/aob/mcm240 · Cited by 688 · see citing works
Engel‐Cox, J. A., Holloman, C. H., Coutant, B. W., et al. (2004) · Atmospheric Environment · doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2004.01.039 · Cited by 651 · see citing works
Multiangle implementation of atmospheric correction (MAIAC): 2. Aerosol algorithm
Lyapustin, A., Wang, Y., László, I., et al. (2011) · Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres · doi:10.1029/2010jd014986 · Cited by 645 · see citing works
Self-citationThe Effect of Fine and Coarse Particulate Air Pollution on Mortality: A National Analysis
Zanobetti, A., & Schwartz, J. D. (2009) · Environmental Health Perspectives · doi:10.1289/ehp.0800108 · Cited by 642 · see citing works
Self-citationChu, D. A., Kaufman, Y. J., Zibordi, G., CHERN, J.-D., Mao, J., Li, C., & HOLBEN, B. N. (2003) · Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres · doi:10.1029/2002jd003179 · Cited by 575 · see citing works
Estimating ground‐level PM 2.5 using aerosol optical depth determined from satellite remote sensing
van Donkelaar, A., Martin, R. V., & Park, R. J. (2006) · Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres · doi:10.1029/2005jd006996 · Cited by 574 · see citing works
Tegen, I., Werner, M., Harrison, S. P., & Kohfeld, K. E. (2004) · Geophysical Research Letters · doi:10.1029/2003gl019216 · Cited by 560 · see citing works
Peng, R. D., Bell, M. L., Geyh, A. S., McDermott, A., Zeger, S. L., Samet, J. M., & Dominici, F. (2009) · Environmental Health Perspectives · doi:10.1289/ehp.0800185 · Cited by 560 · see citing works
Air Pollution and Hospital Admissions for Cardiovascular Disease in Detroit, Michigan
Schwartz, J. D., & Morris, R. D. (1995) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a117541 · Cited by 506 · see citing works
Self-citationAssociation of low-level ozone and fine particles with respiratory symptoms in children with asthma
Gent, J. F. (2003) · JAMA · doi:10.1001/jama.290.14.1859 · Cited by 477 · see citing works
Association between PM2.5 and all-cause and specific-cause mortality in 27 US communities
Franklin, M., Zeka, A., & Schwartz, J. D. (2006) · Journal of Exposure Science & Environmental Epidemiology · doi:10.1038/sj.jes.7500530 · Cited by 467 · see citing works
Self-citationLiu, Y., Paciorek, C. J., & Koutrakis, P. (2009) · Environmental Health Perspectives · doi:10.1289/ehp.0800123 · Cited by 454 · see citing works
Self-citationThe Role of Particle Composition on the Association Between PM2.5 and Mortality
Franklin, M., Koutrakis, P., & Schwartz, J. D. (2008) · Epidemiology · doi:10.1097/ede.0b013e3181812bb7 · Cited by 431 · see citing works
Self-citationEmissions estimation from satellite retrievals: A review of current capability
Streets, D. G., Canty, T. P., Carmichael, G. R., de Foy, B., Dickerson, R. R., Duncan, B. N., Edwards, D. P., Haynes, J. A., Henze, D. K., Houyoux, M. R., et al. (2013) · Atmospheric Environment · doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2013.05.051 · Cited by 421 · see citing works
A novel calibration approach of MODIS AOD data to predict PM 2.5 concentrations
Lee, H. J., Liu, Y., Coull, B. A., Schwartz, J. D., & Koutrakis, P. (2011) · Atmospheric chemistry and physics · doi:10.5194/acp-11-7991-2011 · Cited by 408 · see citing works
Self-citationLyapustin, A., Martonchik, J. V., Wang, Y., et al. (2011) · Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres · doi:10.1029/2010jd014985 · Cited by 373 · see citing works
Self-citationKloog, I., Koutrakis, P., Coull, B. A., Lee, H. J., & Schwartz, J. D. (2011) · Atmospheric Environment · doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2011.08.066 · Cited by 356 · see citing works
Self-citationHarvesting and Long Term Exposure Effects in the Relation between Air Pollution and Mortality
Schwartz, J. D. (2000) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a010228 · Cited by 349 · see citing works
Self-citationImproving National Air Quality Forecasts with Satellite Aerosol Observations
Al-Saadi, J. A., Szykman, J., Pierce, R. B., et al. (2005) · Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society · doi:10.1175/bams-86-9-1249 · Cited by 343 · see citing works
Liu, Y., Park, R. J., Jacob, D. J., et al. (2004) · Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres · doi:10.1029/2004jd005025 · Cited by 319 · see citing works
Kloog, I., Chudnovsky, A., Just, A. C., et al. (2014) · Atmospheric Environment · doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2014.07.014 · Cited by 316 · see citing works
Self-citationApheis: Health Impact Assessment of Long-term Exposure to PM2.5 in 23 European Cities
Daniel Eilstein on behalf of the Apheis group, Boldo, E., Médina, S., Tertre, A. L., Hurley, F., Mücke, H., Ballester, F., & Aguilera, I. (2006) · European Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s10654-006-9014-0 · Cited by 298 · see citing works
Aerosol modeling with CHIMERE—preliminary evaluation at the continental scale
Bessagnet, B., Hodžić, A., Vautard, R., Beekmann, M., Cheinet, S., Honoré, C., Liousse, C., & Rouïl, L. (2004) · Atmospheric Environment · doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2004.02.034 · Cited by 296 · see citing works
Dai, L., Zanobetti, A., Koutrakis, P., & Schwartz, J. D. (2014) · Environmental Health Perspectives · doi:10.1289/ehp.1307568 · Cited by 290 · see citing works
Self-citationSarnat, J. A., Marmur, A., Klein, M., Kim, E., Russell, A. G., Sarnat, S., Mulholland, J. A., Hopke, P. K., & Tolbert, P. E. (2008) · Environmental Health Perspectives · doi:10.1289/ehp.10873 · Cited by 266 · see citing works
Kloog, I., Nordio, F., Coull, B. A., & Schwartz, J. D. (2012) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/es302673e · Cited by 248 · see citing works
Self-citationUrban air pollution, and asthma and COPD hospital emergency room visits
Halonen, J. I., Lanki, T., Yli‐Tuomi, T., Kulmala, M., Tiittanen, P., & Pekkanen, J. (2008) · Thorax · doi:10.1136/thx.2007.091371 · Cited by 241 · see citing works
A Multiyear Global Surface Wind Velocity Dataset Using SSM/I Wind Observations
Atlas, R. M., Hoffman, R. N., Bloom, S. C., Jusem, J. C., & Ardizzone, J. V. (1996) · Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society · doi:10.1175/1520-0477(1996)077 · Cited by 232 · see citing works
Exploring the relation between aerosol optical depth and PM 2.5 at Cabauw, the Netherlands
Schaap, M., Apituley, A., Timmermans, R. M. A., Koelemeijer, R. B. A., & de Leeuw, G. (2009) · Atmospheric chemistry and physics · doi:10.5194/acp-9-909-2009 · Cited by 223 · see citing works
Slama, R., Morgenstern, V., Cyrys, J., Zutavern, A., Herbarth, O., Wichmann, H. ‐., Heinrich, J., & the LISA Study Group (2007) · Environmental Health Perspectives · doi:10.1289/ehp.10047 · Cited by 222 · see citing works
Spatial Variability of PM2.5 in Urban Areas in the United States
Pinto, J. P., Lefohn, A. S., & Shadwick, D. S. (2004) · Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association · doi:10.1080/10473289.2004.10470919 · Cited by 210 · see citing works
Field measurements of isoprene emission from trees in response to temperature and light
Sharkey, T. D., Singsaas, E., Vanderveer, P. J., et al. (1996) · Tree Physiology · doi:10.1093/treephys/16.7.649 · Cited by 206 · see citing works
Lippmann, M., Ito, K., Nadas, A. J., & Burnett, R. T. (2000) · PubMed · Cited by 194 · see citing works
Di, Q., Koutrakis, P., & Schwartz, J. D. (2016) · Atmospheric Environment · doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2016.02.002 · Cited by 184 · see citing works
Self-citationAir Pollution and Hospital Admissions for Cardiovascular Disease in Tucson
Schwartz, J. D. (1997) · Epidemiology · doi:10.1097/00001648-199707000-00004 · Cited by 177 · see citing works
Self-citationWinter to summer monsoon variation of aerosol optical depth over the tropical Indian Ocean
Li, F., & Ramanathan, V. (2002) · Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres · doi:10.1029/2001jd000949 · Cited by 134 · see citing works
Comparison of land-use regression models between Great Britain and the Netherlands
Vienneau, D., de Hoogh, K., Beelen, R. M. J., et al. (2009) · Atmospheric Environment · doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2009.11.016 · Cited by 125 · see citing works
Isoprene emission capacity for US tree species
Geron, C. D., Harley, P. C., & Guenther, A. (2001) · Atmospheric Environment · doi:10.1016/s1352-2310(00)00407-6 · Cited by 118 · see citing works
Aguilera, I., Sunyer, J., Fernández-Patier, R., Hoek, G., Aguirre-Alfaro, A., Meliefste, K., Bomboi-Mingarro, M. T., Nieuwenhuijsen, M. J., Herce-Garraleta, D., & Brunekreef, B. (2007) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/es0715492 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
Liu, Y., Koutrakis, P., Kahn, R. A., Turquéty, S., & Yantosca, R. M. (2007) · Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association · doi:10.3155/1047-3289.57.11.1360 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
Self-citationLee, M., Kloog, I., Chudnovsky, A., Lyapustin, A., Yujie Wang, A., Melly, S. J., Coull, B. A., Koutrakis, P., & Schwartz, J. D. (2015) · Journal of Exposure Science & Environmental Epidemiology · doi:10.1038/jes.2015.41 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
Self-citationPatton, A. P., Zamore, W., Naumova, E. N., et al. (2015) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/es5061676 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
Drury, E., Jacob, D. J., Wang, J., et al. (2008) · Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres · doi:10.1029/2007jd009573 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
Beckerman, B., Jerrett, M., Martin, R. V., et al. (2013) · Atmospheric Environment · doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2013.04.024 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Statistical comparison of observed and CMAQ modeled daily sulfate levels
Jun, M., & Stein, M. L. (2004) · Atmospheric Environment · doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2004.05.019 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Ghassoun, Y., Ruths, M., Löwner, M.-O., et al. (2015) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.07.051 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Hu, R., Sokhi, R. S., & Fisher, B. E. A. (2009) · Journal of Aerosol Science · doi:10.1016/j.jaerosci.2009.01.005 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Environmental Tracking for Public Health Surveillance
(2012) · CRC Press eBooks · doi:10.1201/b12680 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Vertical Transports by Plumes within the Moderately Convective Marine Atmospheric Surface Layer
Mason, R. A., Shirer, H. N., Wells, R., & Young, G. S. (2002) · Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences · doi:10.1175/1520-0469(2002)059 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 2
- [52]Chudnovsky A Lyapustin A Wang Y Schwartz J Koutrakis P Analyses of high resolution aerosol data from MODIS satellite: a MAIAC retrieval, southern New England, US First International Conference on Remote Sensing and Geoinformation of the Environment 2013 8795 Aug 5th
- [56]Di Q Schwartz J Using Chemical Transport Model to Fill in the Missingness of Satellite-Based AOD Atmos Environ In review
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Air pollution and mortality in the Medicare population
Di, Q., Wang, Y., Zanobetti, A., Wang, Y., Koutrakis, P., Choirat, C., Dominici, F., & Schwartz, J. D. (2017) · New England Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1056/nejmoa1702747 · Cited by 1,510 · see citing works
Association of short-term exposure to air pollution with mortality in older adults
Di, Q., Dai, L., Wang, Y., Zanobetti, A., Choirat, C., Schwartz, J. D., & Dominici, F. (2017) · JAMA · doi:10.1001/jama.2017.17923 · Cited by 698 · see citing works
Self-citationYu, W., Ye, T., Zhang, Y., Xu, R., Lei, Y., Chen, Z., Yang, Z., Zhang, Y., Song, J., Yue, X., et al. (2023) · The Lancet Planetary Health · doi:10.1016/s2542-5196(23)00008-6 · Cited by 215 · see citing works
Tackling climate change with machine learning
Rolnick, D., Donti, P. L., Kaack, L. H., Kochanski, K., Lacoste, A., Sankaran, K., Ross, A. S., Milojevic-Dupont, N., Jaques, N., Waldman-Brown, A., et al. (2023) · ACM Computing Surveys · doi:10.1145/3485128 · Cited by 336 · see citing works
Chowdhury, S., Pozzer, A., Dey, S., Klingmueller, K., & Lelieveld, J. (2020) · Environmental Research Letters · doi:10.1088/1748-9326/ab8334 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
- Authors
- Di, Q., Kloog, I., Koutrakis, P., Lyapustin, A., Wang, Y., & Schwartz, J.
- Affiliations
- Harvard University (US)
- Goddard Space Flight Center (US)
- University of Maryland, Baltimore County, Baltimore, Maryland 21250, United States
- Corresponding author
- Di, Qian
- Venue
- Environmental Science & Technology
- Publisher
- American Chemical Society (ACS)
- Published
- 2016-04-22
- Volume
- 50
- Issue
- 9
- Pages
- 4712-4721
- ISSN
- 0013-936X (ISSN-L)
- 1520-5851
- PMC
- PMC5761665
- OpenAlex
- W2323483937
- Cited by
- 510
- References
- 72
- Citations by year
- 2026: 35 · 2025: 48 · 2024: 55 · 2023: 47 · 2022: 81 · 2021: 59 · 2020: 55 · 2019: 70 · 2018: 34 · 2017: 22 · 2016: 3 · 2013: 1
- FWCI
- 26.81
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Environmental Science & Technology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- NASA STI Repository (National Aeronautics and Space Administration) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (ES000002, R01 ES024332-01A1)
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (RD83479801)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Engineering › Air Quality Monitoring and Forecasting
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Health, Toxicology and Mutagenesis › Air Quality and Health Impacts
- Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Atmospheric Science › Atmospheric chemistry and aerosols
- Keywords
- artificial neural networks, convolutional neural networks, aerosol optical depth, land use regression, NDVI, surface reflectance, absorbing aerosol index, spatiotemporal autocorrelation, spatiotemporal resolution, continental United States, exposure mapping
- MeSH terms
- Aerosols, Humans, Models, Chemical, Models, Theoretical, United States, Particulate Matter
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
