Control over Crystal Size in Vapor Deposited Metal-Halide Perovskite Films

Lohmann, Kilian B.; Patel, Jay B.; Rothmann, Mathias Uller; Xia, Chelsea Q.; Oliver, Robert D. J.; Herz, Laura M.; Snaith, Henry J.; Johnston, Michael B.

doi:10.1021/acsenergylett.0c00183

Cited by 115Perovskite Materials and ApplicationsOrganic Electronics and PhotovoltaicsFerroelectric and Piezoelectric Materials

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Control over Crystal Size in Vapor Deposited Metal-Halide Perovskite Films

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Lohmann, Kilian B., Patel, Jay B., Rothmann, Mathias Uller, Xia, Chelsea Q., Oliver, Robert D. J., Herz, Laura M., Snaith, Henry J., Johnston, Michael B.·2020·ACS Energy Letters

DOI 10.1021/acsenergylett.0c00183PMC PMC7147257

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Abstract

Understanding and controlling grain growth in metal halide perovskite polycrystalline thin films is an important step in improving the performance of perovskite solar cells. We demonstrate accurate control of crystallite size in CH3NH3PbI3 thin films by regulating substrate temperature during vacuum co-deposition of inorganic (PbI2) and organic (CH3NH3I) precursors. Films co-deposited onto a cold (−2 °C) substrate exhibited large, micrometer-sized crystal grains, while films that formed at room temperature (23 °C) only produced grains of 100 nm extent. We isolated the effects of substrate temperature on crystal growth by developing a new method to control sublimation of the organic precursor, and CH3NH3PbI3 solar cells deposited in this way yielded a power conversion efficiency of up to 18.2%. Furthermore, we found substrate temperature directly affects the adsorption rate of CH3NH3I, thus impacting crystal formation and hence solar cell device performance via changes to the conversion rate of PbI2 to CH3NH3PbI3 and stoichiometry. These findings offer new routes to developing efficient solar cells through reproducible control of crystal morphology and composition.

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Choose Your Own Adventure: Fabrication of Monolithic All‐Perovskite Tandem Photovoltaics
Moot, T., Werner, J., Eperon, G. E., Zhu, K., Berry, J. J., McGehee, M. D., & Luther, J. M. (2020) · Advanced Materials · doi:10.1002/adma.202003312 · Cited by 64
Progress in Flexible Perovskite Solar Cells: Paving the Way for Scalable Manufacturing
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Opportunities and Challenges for Perovskite Solar Cells Based on Vacuum Thermal Evaporation
Lee, J., Kim, B. S., Park, J., Lee, J., & Kim, K. (2022) · Advanced Materials Technologies · doi:10.1002/admt.202200928 · Cited by 58
Room-Temperature Vacuum Deposition of CsPbI2Br Perovskite Films from Multiple Sources and Mixed Halide Precursors
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Vapor Transport Deposition of Methylammonium Iodide for Perovskite Solar Cells
Sahli, F., Miaz, N., Salsi, N., Bucher, C., Schafflützel, A., Guesnay, Q., Duchêne, L., Niesen, B., Ballif, C., & Jeangros, Q. (2021) · ACS Applied Energy Materials · doi:10.1021/acsaem.0c02999 · Cited by 53
Thermally Stable Perovskite Solar Cells by All-Vacuum Deposition
Yuan, Q., Lohmann, K. B., Oliver, R. D. J., Ramadan, A. J., Yan, S., Ball, J. M., Christoforo, M. G., Noel, N. K., Snaith, H. J., Herz, L. M., et al. (2022) · ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces · doi:10.1021/acsami.2c14658 · Cited by 52
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Thermally Evaporated Metal Halide Perovskites and Their Analogues: Film Fabrication, Applications and Beyond
Wang, Z., Lyu, M., Zhang, B., Xiao, M., Zhang, C., Han, E., & Wang, L. (2024) · Small Methods · doi:10.1002/smtd.202301633 · Cited by 48
Single‐Source Vapor‐Deposition of MA1–xFAxPbI3 Perovskite Absorbers for Solar Cells
Soto‐Montero, T., Kralj, S., Soltanpoor, W., Solomon, J. S., Gómez, J. S., Zanoni, K. P. S., Paliwal, A., Bolink, H. J., Baeumer, C., Kentgens, A. P. M., et al. (2023) · Advanced Functional Materials · doi:10.1002/adfm.202300588 · Cited by 47
Efficient and Thermally Stable Wide Bandgap Perovskite Solar Cells by Dual‐Source Vacuum Deposition
Gil‐Escrig, L., Šušić, I., Doğan, İ., Zardetto, V., Najafi, M., Zhang, D., Veenstra, S. C., Sedani, S. H., Arıkan, B., Yerci, S., et al. (2023) · Advanced Functional Materials · doi:10.1002/adfm.202214357 · Cited by 46
Molten Salt Strategy for Reproducible Evaporation of Efficient Perovskite Solar Cells
Li, H., Tan, L., Jiang, C., Li, M., Zhou, J., Ye, Y., Liu, Y., & Yi, C. (2022) · Advanced Functional Materials · doi:10.1002/adfm.202211232 · Cited by 45
A Review on Buried Interface of Perovskite Solar Cells
Pu, Y., Su, H., Liu, C., Guo, M., Liu, L., & Fu, H. (2023) · Energies · doi:10.3390/en16135015 · Cited by 44
Advanced Strategies to Tailor the Nucleation and Crystal Growth in Hybrid Halide Perovskite Thin Films
Kumar, J., Srivastava, P., & Bag, M. (2022) · Frontiers in Chemistry · doi:10.3389/fchem.2022.842924 · Cited by 42
Exceeding 23% Efficiency for 3D/3D Bilayer Perovskite Heterojunction MAPbI3/FAPbI3‐Based Hybrid Perovskite Solar Cells with Enhanced Stability
Patil, J. V., Mali, S. S., & Hong, C. K. (2024) · Advanced Functional Materials · doi:10.1002/adfm.202408721 · Cited by 40
Seed Layers for Wide-Band Gap Coevaporated Perovskite Solar Cells: CsCl Regulates Band Gap and Reduces Process Variability
Škorjanc, V., Miaskiewicz, A., Roß, M., Maniyarasu, S., Severin, S., Leyden, M. R., Holzhey, P. J., Ruske, F., Korte, L., & Albrecht, S. (2024) · ACS Energy Letters · doi:10.1021/acsenergylett.4c02173 · Cited by 38
A Templating Approach to Controlling the Growth of Coevaporated Halide Perovskites
Yan, S., Patel, J. B., Lee, J. E., Elmestekawy, K. A., Ratnasingham, S. R., Yuan, Q., Herz, L. M., Noel, N. K., & Johnston, M. B. (2023) · ACS Energy Letters · doi:10.1021/acsenergylett.3c01368 · Cited by 37
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Controlled Crystal Growth of All-Inorganic CsPbI 2 Br via Sequential Vacuum Deposition for Efficient Perovskite Solar Cells
Lee, M. H., Kim, D. W., Noh, Y. W., Kim, H. S., Han, J., Lee, H., Choi, K. J., Cho, S., & Song, M. H. (2024) · ACS Nano · doi:10.1021/acsnano.4c03079 · Cited by 37
Progress and challenges of lead free halide perovskite materials for perovskite solar cell applications
Saranya, K., & Janarthanan, B. (2023) · Journal of Molecular Structure · doi:10.1016/j.molstruc.2023.135663 · Cited by 37
Discovering Process Dynamics for Scalable Perovskite Solar Cell Manufacturing with Explainable AI
Klein, L., Ziegler, S., Laufer, F., Debus, C., Götz, M., Maier-Hein, K. H., Paetzold, U. W., Isensee, F., & Jäger, P. F. (2023) · Advanced Materials · doi:10.1002/adma.202307160 · Cited by 36
2D Material and Perovskite Heterostructure for Optoelectronic Applications
Miao, S., Liu, T., Du, Y., Zhou, X., Gao, J., Xie, Y., Shen, F., Liu, Y., & Cho, Y. (2022) · Nanomaterials · doi:10.3390/nano12122100 · Cited by 36
Advances in components engineering in vapor deposited perovskite thin film for photovoltaic application
Lin, D., Zhan, Z., Huang, X., Liu, P., & Xie, W. (2022) · Materials Today Advances · doi:10.1016/j.mtadv.2022.100277 · Cited by 36
Fast Coevaporation of 1 μm Thick Perovskite Solar Cells
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Photovoltaic Devices Using Sublimed Methylammonium Lead Iodide Perovskites: Long‐Term Reproducible Processing
Zanoni, K. P. S., Martínez‐Goyeneche, L., Dreeßen, C., Sessolo, M., & Bolink, H. J. (2023) · Solar RRL · doi:10.1002/solr.202201073 · Cited by 34
Insight into structure defects in high-performance perovskite solar cells
Zhang, Y., Li, Q., Li, B., & Wang, C. (2023) · Journal of Power Sources · doi:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2023.233011 · Cited by 32
Importance of methylammonium iodide partial pressure and evaporation onset for the growth of co-evaporated methylammonium lead iodide absorbers
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Thin films deposition of fully inorganic metal halide perovskites: A review
Calisi, N., Galvanetto, E., Borgioli, F., Martinuzzi, S. M., Bacci, T., & Caporali, S. (2022) · Materials Science in Semiconductor Processing · doi:10.1016/j.mssp.2022.106721 · Cited by 30
Vacuum Evaporation of High-Quality CsPbBr3 Thin Films for Efficient Light-Emitting Diodes
Bai, T., Wang, S., Bai, L., Zhang, K., Chu, C., & Yi, L. (2022) · Nanoscale Research Letters · doi:10.1186/s11671-022-03708-1 · Cited by 29
Octahedral Tilt Enables Efficient and Stable Fully Vapor‐Deposited Perovskite/Silicon Tandem Cells
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Scalable Fabrication of High‐Performance Perovskite Solar Cell Modules by Mediated Vapor Deposition
Wang, Y., Chen, J., Zhang, Y., Lv, P., Pan, J., Hu, M., Tan, W. L., Ku, Z., Cheng, Y., Simonov, A. N., et al. (2024) · Advanced Materials · doi:10.1002/adma.202412021 · Cited by 27
Pizza Oven Processing of Organohalide Perovskites (POPOP): A Simple, Versatile and Efficient Vapor Deposition Method
Guesnay, Q., Sahli, F., Artuk, K., Türkay, D., Kuba, A. G., Mrkyvkova, N., Végsö, K., Šiffalovič, P., Schreiber, F., Lai, H., et al. (2024) · Advanced Energy Materials · doi:10.1002/aenm.202303423 · Cited by 25
Incorporating thermal co-evaporation in current-matched all-perovskite triple-junction solar cells
Yang, T. C., Kang, T., Fitzsimmons, M. R., Vega, G., Lu, Y., Rosado, L., Jiménez‐Solano, A., Pan, L., Zelewski, S. J., Orri, J. F., et al. (2025) · EES solar. · doi:10.1039/d4el00012a · Cited by 24
Evolution of Structure and Optoelectronic Properties During Halide Perovskite Vapor Deposition
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A Review on Dry Deposition Techniques: Pathways to Enhanced Perovskite Solar Cells
Hwang, J., Jeong, S.-H., Kim, D., Lee, H., & Kang, Y. (2023) · Energies · doi:10.3390/en16165977 · Cited by 24
Industry‐Compatible Fully Laminated Perovskite‐CIGS Tandem Solar Cells with Co‐Evaporated Perovskite
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Solvent‐Free Fabrication Methods of Metal Halide Perovskites
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Vacuum‐Processed Perovskite Solar Cells: Materials and Methods
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Electrical Doping of Metal Halide Perovskites by Co‐Evaporation and Application in PN Junctions
Schramm, T., Deconinck, M., Ji, R., Siliavka, E. S., Hofstetter, Y. J., Löffler, M., Shilovskikh, V. V., Brunner, J., Li, Y., Bitton, S., et al. (2024) · Advanced Materials · doi:10.1002/adma.202314289 · Cited by 21
Vacuum Thermal Evaporation for OLEDs: Fundamentals, Optimization, and Implications for Perovskite LEDs
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Large-area perovskite films for PV applications: A perspective from nucleation and crystallization
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Efficient modeling of double absorber layered structure in perovskite solar cells using machine learning techniques
Prasanna, J., Goel, E., & Kumar, A. (2023) · Physica Scripta · doi:10.1088/1402-4896/acf535 · Cited by 19
Simple and effective deposition method for solar cell perovskite films using a sheet of paper
Zarabinia, N., Lucarelli, G., Rasuli, R., Rossi, F. D., Taheri, B., Lomeri, H. J., Brunetti, F., & Brown, T. M. (2021) · iScience · doi:10.1016/j.isci.2021.103712 · Cited by 19
Formation of a Secondary Phase in Thermally Evaporated MAPbI3 and Its Effects on Solar Cell Performance
Castro‐Mendez, A., Perini, C. A. R., Hidalgo, J., Ranke, D., Vagott, J. N., An, Y., Lai, B. C. H., Luo, Y., Li, R., & Correa‐Baena, J. (2022) · ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces · doi:10.1021/acsami.2c02036 · Cited by 18
Interdiffusion control in sequentially evaporated organic–inorganic perovskite solar cells
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Low‐Temperature Processing of Co‐Evaporated CsPbI 2 Br for High‐Efficiency, Wide‐Bandgap Inverted Perovskite Solar Cells
Ghavidel, E., Raoui, Y., Jover, Ó., Ammirati, G., Zarotti, F., Magliano, E., Giacomo, F. D., Giovannantonio, M. D., Catone, D., Mariani, P., et al. (2025) · Advanced Functional Materials · doi:10.1002/adfm.202502970 · Cited by 17
Bilayered graded phase homojunction FA0.15MA0.85PbI3-based organic-inorganic hybrid perovskite solar cells crossing 22 % efficiency
Patil, J. V., Mali, S. S., Rondiya, S. R., Dzade, N. Y., & Hong, C. K. (2023) · Progress in Solid State Chemistry · doi:10.1016/j.progsolidstchem.2023.100437 · Cited by 17
Multifunctional polymers in perovskite photovoltaics: bridging efficiency, stability, and manufacturing
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Optical Simulations in Perovskite Devices: A Critical Analysis
Kar, S., Kaushal, K., Yantara, N., & Mhaisalkar, S. G. (2022) · ACS Photonics · doi:10.1021/acsphotonics.2c00484 · Cited by 15
Crystallographically Oriented Hybrid Perovskites via Thermal Vacuum Codeposition
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Large-area in situ growth of a flexible perovskite scintillator film for X-ray indirect detection applications
Lv, H., Hao, Q., Yan, N., Ma, L., & Chen, M. (2024) · Journal of Materials Chemistry C · doi:10.1039/d4tc01113a · Cited by 14
Atomistic Understanding of the Coherent Interface Between Lead Iodide Perovskite and Lead Iodide
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Additive‐Free Sequential Thermal Evaporation of Near‐Intrinsic Pb‐Sn Perovskites
van der Poll, L. M., van Silfhout, N., Nespoli, J., van der Meer, M., Boekhoff, R. K., Bannenberg, L. J., Smets, A. H. M., & Savenije, T. J. (2024) · Small Methods · doi:10.1002/smtd.202401246 · Cited by 13
Tuning substrate temperature for enhanced vacuum-deposited wide-bandgap perovskite solar cells: insights from morphology, charge transport, and drift-diffusion simulations
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Vacuum-evaporated lead halide perovskite LEDs [Invited]
Yan, F., & Demir, H. V. (2021) · Optical Materials Express · doi:10.1364/ome.442770 · Cited by 13
Mitigation of Defect Formation at the NiO x /Perovskite Interface in p-i-n Perovskite Solar Cells
Hajhemati, J., Mallik, N., Dufoulon, V., Frégnaux, M., Regaldo, D., Coutancier, D., Schneider, N., Tondelier, D., Desta, D., Boyen, H. ‐., et al. (2025) · ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces · doi:10.1021/acsami.5c18456 · Cited by 12
Efficient Metal‐Halide Perovskite Photovoltaic Cells Deposited via Vapor Transport Deposition
Hsu, W.-J., Pettit, E. C., Swartwout, R., Kadosh, T., Srinivasan, S., Wassweiler, E. L., Haugstad, G. D., Bulović, V., & Holmes, R. J. (2023) · Solar RRL · doi:10.1002/solr.202300758 · Cited by 12
Growth mechanism of CH 3 NH 3 I in a vacuum processed perovskite
Kim, B.-S., Han, Y., & Kim, J. (2020) · Nanoscale Advances · doi:10.1039/d0na00466a · Cited by 12
Improving Crystallization and Stability of Perovskite Solar Cells Using a Low-Temperature Treated A-Site Cation Solution in the Sequential Deposition
Li, T., Xiong, Q., Hu, C., Wang, C., Zhang, N., Lien, S., & Gao, P. (2023) · Molecules · doi:10.3390/molecules28104103 · Cited by 11
Stoichiometry dependent phase evolution of co-evaporated formamidinium and cesium lead halide thin films
Heinze, K. L., Wessel, P., Mauer, M., Scheer, R., & Pistor, P. (2022) · Materials Advances · doi:10.1039/d2ma00507g · Cited by 10
Vacuum co-evaporated wide-bandgap perovskite films for highly-efficient indoor photovoltaic cells and modules
Liu, Y., Yang, J., Luo, Q., He, M., Zhang, C., Liu, C., Yang, H., Wu, S., & Mai, Y. (2023) · Surfaces and Interfaces · doi:10.1016/j.surfin.2023.102648 · Cited by 9
Characterization of 2D-PEA2SnI4 perovskite thin films grown by sequential physical vapor deposition
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Reduced Recombination Losses in Evaporated Perovskite Solar Cells by Postfabrication Treatment
Kiermasch, D., Fischer, M., Gil‐Escrig, L., Baumann, A., Bolink, H. J., Dyakonov, V., & Tvingstedt, K. (2021) · Solar RRL · doi:10.1002/solr.202100400 · Cited by 9
Vacuum-Processed Propylene Urea Additive: A Novel Approach for Controlling the Growth of CH3NH3PbI3 Crystals in All Vacuum-Processed Perovskite Solar Cells
Lee, K., Kim, Y., Lee, J., Park, Y., Cho, K., Kim, W., Park, J., & Kim, K. (2024) · ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces · doi:10.1021/acsami.4c02043 · Cited by 8
Controlled Deposition of Lead Iodide and Lead Chloride Thin Films by Low-Pressure Chemical Vapor Deposition
Ngqoloda, S., Arendse, C. J., Muller, T. F. G., Magubane, S. S., & Oliphant, C. J. (2020) · Coatings · doi:10.3390/coatings10121208 · Cited by 8
Ultrafast photo-induced phonon hardening due to Pauli blocking in MAPbI 3 single-crystal and polycrystalline perovskites
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Remarkable performance recovery in highly defective perovskite solar cells by photo-oxidation
Goetz, K. P., Thome, F. T., An, Q., Hofstetter, Y. J., Schramm, T., Yangui, A., Kiligaridis, A., Loeffler, M., Taylor, A. D., Scheblykin, I. G., et al. (2023) · Journal of Materials Chemistry C · doi:10.1039/d2tc05077c · Cited by 8
Solvent-free synthetic protocols for halide perovskites
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Improving CIGS solar cell efficiency through single, double, and triple junction absorber layer design Innovations
Hajji, M., Akkari, A., Charrada, G., Garcia-Loureiro, A. J., & Kamoun, N. (2025) · Ceramics International · doi:10.1016/j.ceramint.2025.03.226 · Cited by 7
Design of a custom vapor transport co-deposition system for scalable production of perovskite solar cells
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Addressing the Stability Challenge of Perovskite Solar Cells: The Potential of Ionic Liquid Incorporation for Improved Device Durability
Farinha, A. F. M., Santos, L. M. N. B. F., & Costa, J. C. S. (2023) · U Porto Journal of Engineering · doi:10.24840/2183-6493_009-004_002162 · Cited by 6
Tailored Design‐of‐Experiments Approach for Device Performance Prediction and Optimization of Flash‐Evaporated Organic–Inorganic Halide Perovskite‐Based Photodetectors
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Crystallization modulation and defect passivation in carbon-based perovskite solar cells using multifunctional group additive
Xu, X., Wang, K., Lu, F., Cao, Y., & Zhou, X. (2024) · Optical Materials · doi:10.1016/j.optmat.2024.115245 · Cited by 5
Vapor additive strategy enabling perfect crystallization of vacuum-evaporated photovoltaic perovskites
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Emerging Vapor-Phase Growth Methods for Halide Perovskite Thin Films and Nanostructures
Yadav, P., Sah, A., Ewald, C. N., & Kim, S. (2025) · ACS Materials Au · doi:10.1021/acsmaterialsau.5c00122 · Cited by 5
Compositional Analysis of Metal Halide Perovskites: Insight into the Coevaporation Process via Nuclear Magnetic Resonance and X-ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy
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Formamidinium Lead Iodide‐Based Perovskite Solar Cell Fabrication With an Electrospun‐Reduced Graphene Oxide Back Electrode: A Novel Approach
Velu, K. S., Mohandoss, S., Aslam, M., Manimekalai, A., Ahmad, N., & Sun, S. (2024) · ChemistrySelect · doi:10.1002/slct.202404550 · Cited by 3
Thermal evaporation routes for perovskite photovoltaics, from fundamentals to integration
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Optimized Substrate Orientations for Highly Uniform Metal Halide Perovskite Film Deposition
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Numerical design considerations for vapor transport deposition of metal-halide perovskite thin films
Hsu, W.-J., Wassweiler, E. L., Pettit, E. C., Bulović, V., & Holmes, R. J. (2025) · Applied Physics Letters · doi:10.1063/5.0259227 · Cited by 1

Control of electronic properties of metal halide perovskites through vacuum co-deposition
Lohmann, K. B. (2022) · Oxford University Research Archive (ORA) (University of Oxford) · doi:10.5287/ora-dp4bpr2vj
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Modulating crystal grain size and optoelectronic properties of perovskite films for solar cells by reaction temperature
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Thermally Induced Crystallization of High Quality CH3NH3PbI3 Film with Large Grains for Highly Efficient Perovskite Solar Cells
Hou, Y., Yang, S., Chen, X., Li, C., Zhao, H., & Yang, H. G. (2017) · Chemistry - A European Journal · doi:10.1002/chem.201605693 · Cited by 6
Controlled Growth of Large Grains in CH3NH3PbI3 Perovskite Films Mediated by an Intermediate Liquid Phase without an Antisolvent for Efficient Solar Cells
Amalathas, A. P., Landová, L., Hájková, Z., Horák, L., Ledinský, M., & Holovský, J. (2020) · ACS Applied Energy Materials · doi:10.1021/acsaem.0c02441 · Cited by 23
Controlling crystallization temperature and morphology of FAPbI3 thin films via solvent engineering
Nakamura, Y., Tsutomu, M., & Shibayama, N. (2026) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.31023905

Authors: Lohmann, K. B., Patel, J. B., Rothmann, M. U., Xia, C. Q., Oliver, R. D. J., Herz, L. M., Snaith, H. J., & Johnston, M. B.
Affiliations: University of Oxford (GB)
Corresponding author: Johnston, Michael B.
ORCID: Lohmann, Kilian B.
Patel, Jay B.
Rothmann, Mathias Uller
Xia, Chelsea Q.
Oliver, Robert D. J.
Herz, Laura M.
Snaith, Henry J.
Johnston, Michael B.
Venue: ACS Energy Letters
Publisher: American Chemical Society (ACS)
Published: 2020-02-04
Volume: 5
Issue: 3
Pages: 710-717
ISSN: 2380-8195 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1021/acsenergylett.0c00183
PMC: PMC7147257
OpenAlex: W3004566220
Cited by: 113
References: 53
Citations by year: 2026: 11 · 2025: 15 · 2024: 16 · 2023: 25 · 2022: 17 · 2021: 16 · 2020: 13
FWCI: 5.98
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: hybrid
doi.org
Licence: cc-by
pubs.acs.org/page/policy/authorchoice_ccby_termsofuse.html (vor, 3 d)
Locations: ACS Energy Letters (publishedVersion, cc-by)
PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Oxford University Research Archive (ORA) (University of Oxford) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
Funders: Alexander von Humboldt-Stiftung (NA)
Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EP/P006329/1, EP/P033229/1)
Topics: Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Perovskite Materials and Applications
Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Organic Electronics and Photovoltaics
Physical Sciences › Materials Science › Materials Chemistry › Ferroelectric and Piezoelectric Materials
Keywords: halide perovskites, methylammonium lead iodide, perovskite solar cells, grain size control, substrate temperature, co-deposition, vapor deposition, precursor adsorption, crystal growth, stoichiometry, crystal morphology

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Control over Crystal Size in Vapor Deposited Metal-Halide Perovskite Films

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