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Beyond “identity”

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Brubaker, Rogers, Cooper, Frederick·2000·Theory and Society
DOI 10.1023/a:1007068714468
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  • A person can be identified as a member of a racial group by the state, by themselves, or by other members of society.

    “A person can be identified as a member of a racial group by the state, by themselves, or by other members of society.”

    From A Critical and Comprehensive Sociological Theory of Race and Racism (2016) · cites this paper as Brubaker and Cooper 2000

  • The state has the material and symbolic resources to impose the categories, classificatory schemes, and modes of social counting and accounting with which bureaucrats, judges, teachers, and doctors must work and to which non-state actors must refer.

    “The state has the 'material and symbolic resources to impose the categories, classificatory schemes, and modes of social counting and accounting with which bureaucrats, judges, teachers, and doctors must work and to which non-state actors must refer' (Brubaker and Cooper 2000: 16).”

    From A Critical and Comprehensive Sociological Theory of Race and Racism (2016) · cites this paper as Brubaker and Cooper 2000

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  1. Avrum Stroll, ``Identity,'' Encyclopedia of Philosophy (New York: MacMillan, 1967), Vol. IV, p. 121^124. For a contemporary philosophical treatment, see Bartholomaeus Boehm, Identitaet und Identi¢kation: Zur Persistenz physikalischer Gegenstaende (Frankfurth/Main: Peter Lang, 1989). On the history and vicissitudes of ``identity'' and cognate terms, see W. J. M. Mackenzie, Political Identity (New York: St. Martin's 1978), 19^27, and John D. Ely, ``Community and the Politics of Identity: Toward the Genealogy of a Nation-State Concept,'' Stanford Humanities Review 5/2 (1997), 76¡.
  2. See Philip Gleason, ``Identifying Identity: A Semantic History,'' Journal of American History 69/4 (March 1983): 910^931. The 1930s Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences (New York: Macmillan: 1930^1935) contains no entry on identity, but it does have one on ``identi¢cation'' ^largely focused on ¢ngerprinting and other modes of judicial marking of individuals (Thorstein Sellin, Vol. 7, pp. 573^575). The 1968 International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences (New York: Macmillan), contains an article on ``identi¢cation, political'' by William Buchanan (Vol. 7, pp. 57^61), which focuses on a ``person's identi¢cation with a group'' ^including class, party, religion ^and another on ``identity, psychosocial,'' by Erik Erikson (ibid., 61^65), which focuses on the individual's ``role integration in his group.''
  3. Anselm Strauss, Mirrors and Masks: The Search for an Identity (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1959).
  4. Wilton S. Dillon (Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1974).
  5. See for example Craig Calhoun, ``New Social Movements of the Early Nineteenth Century,'' Social Science History 17/3 (1993): 385^427.
  6. Mackenzie, Political Identity, 11, reporting a seminar paper of 1974; Coles is quoted in Gleason, ``Identifying Identity,'' 913. Gleason notes that the problem was remarked even earlier: ``by the late 1960s the terminological situation had gotten completely out of hand'' (ibid., 915). Erikson himself lamented the ``indis- sociologie 36, no. 1 (1995): 72^102;
  7. Anthony Giddens, Modernity and Self-identity: Self and Society in the Late Modern Age (Cambridge: Polity Press, in association with Blackwell, Oxford, 1991);
  8. David Laitin, Identity in Formation (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1998);
  9. Paul Ricoeur, Oneself as Another (Chicago: Uni- versity of Chicago Press, 1992);
  10. Amartya Sen, ``Goals, Commitment, and Identity,'' Journal of Law, Economics, and Organization 2 (Fall 1985): 341^355;
  11. Harrison White, Identity and Control: A Structural Theory of Social Action (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1992).
  12. On experience-near and experience-distant concepts ^the terms are derived from Heinz Kohut ^see Cli¡ord Geertz, ``From the Native's Point of View,'' in Local Knowledge (New York: Basic Books, 1983), 57. The basic contrast goes back at least to Durkheim's Rules of Sociological Method, which criticized the sociological use of ``pre-notions'' or lay concepts that have been ``created by experience and for it.'' Emile Durkheim, The Rules of Sociological Method, trans. S. Solovay and J. Mueller, ed. G. E. G. Catlin, 8th ed. (New York: Free Press, 1964), 14^46.
  13. On ``ethnic identity entrepreneurs,'' see Barbara Lal, ``Ethnic Identity Entrepreneurs: Their Role in Transracial and Intercountry Adoptions,'' Asian Paci¢c Migration Journal 6 (1997): 385^413.
  14. This argument is developed further in Rogers Brubaker, Nationalism Reframed (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), chapter 1.
  15. Mara Loveman, ``Is `race' essential? A comment on Bonilla-Silva,'' American Sociological Review, November 1999. See also Wacquant, ``For an Analytic of Racial Domination''; Rupert Taylor, ``Racial Terminology and the Question of `Race' in South Africa,'' manuscript, 7; and Max Weber, Economy and Society, ed. Guenther Roth and Claus Wittich (New York: Bedminster Press, 1968), 1: 385¡, for a strikingly modern argument questioning the analytical utility of the notions of ``race,'' ``ethnic group,'' and ``nation.''
  16. The contemporary conceptualization of identity as unmoored from social struc- ture is foreign to most premodern social settings, where self-and other-identi¢ca- tions are generally understood as following directly from social structure. See, for example, Peter Berger, ``On the Obsolescence of the Concept of Honor,'' 172^181 in Revisions: Changing Perspectives in Moral Philosophy, ed. Stanley Hauerwas and Alasdair MacIntyre (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1983).
  17. Alberto Melucci, ``The Process of Collective Identity,'' in Social Movements and Culture, ed. Hank Johnston and Bert Klandermans (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1995).
  18. Walker Connor, Ethnonationalism, The Quest for Understanding (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994), 195^209.
  19. For a sophisticated historical and philosophical account, see Charles Taylor, Sources of the Self: The Making of the Modern Identity (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1989).
  20. Melucci, ``The Process of Collective Identity''; Roger Gould, Insurgent Identities: Class, Community and Protest in Paris from 1848 to the Commune (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995).
  21. Two important, although partial, exceptions deserve note. Walter Benn Michaels has formulated a brilliant and provocative critique of the concept of ``cultural identity'' in ``Race into Culture.'' But that essay focuses less on analytical uses of the notion of ``identity'' than on the di¤culty of specifying what makes ``our'' culture or ``our'' past count as ``our own'' ^when the reference is not to one's actual cultural practices or one's actual personal past but to some putative group culture or group past ^without implicitly invoking the notion of ``race.'' He concludes that ``our sense of culture is characteristically meant to displace race, but ... culture has turned out to be a way of continuing rather than repudiating racial thought. It is only the appeal to race that ... gives notions like losing our culture, preserving it, [or] ... restoring people's culture to them ... their pathos'' (61^62). Richard Handler argues that ``we should be as suspicious of `identity' as we have learned to be of `culture,' `tradition,' `nation,' and `ethnic group' '' (27), but then pulls his critical punches. His central argument ^that the salience of ``iden- tity'' in contemporary Western, especially American society ``does not mean that the concept can be applied unthinkingly to other places and times'' (27) ^is certainly true, but it implies that the concept can be fruitfully applied in contem- porary Western settings, something that other passages in the same article and his own work on Que¨be¨cois nationalism tend to call into question. See ``Is `Identity' a Useful Cross-Cultural Concept?'' in Commemorations: The Politics of National Identity, ed. John Gillis (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994); the quota- tions are from p.
  22. See also Handler, Nationalism and the Politics of Culture in Quebec (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1988).
  23. Somers, ``The Narrative Constitution of Identity''; the quotations are from 605, 606, 614, and 618, emphasis in original. See also Somers's ``Narrativity, Narrative Identity, and Social Action: Rethinking English Working-Class Formation,'' Social Science History 16/4 (Winter 1992): 591^630. For another argument for seeing identity in terms of narrative, see Denis-Constant Martin, ``The Choices of Iden- tity,'' Social Identities 1/1 (1995), 5^20; see also idem, ``Introduction: Identite¨s et politique: Re¨cit, mythe, et ide¨ologie,'' 13^38 in Denis-Constant Martin, editor, Cartes d'identite¨: Comment dit-on ``nous'' en politique? (Paris: Presses de la Fonda- tion Nationale des Sciences Politiques, 1994).
  24. Charles Tilly, ``Citizenship, Identity and Social History,'' 1^17 in Citizenship, Identity and Social History, ed. Charles Tilly (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996). The quotations are from p. 7.
  25. Craig Calhoun, ``The Problem of Identity in Collective Action,'' in Joan Huber, editor, Macro Micro Linkages in Sociology (Newbury Park, Cal.: Sage, 1991). The quotations are from pp. 53, 64^67. 55. Ibid., 53, 68.
  26. On the merits of ``identi¢cation'', see Hall, ``Who Needs `Identity?' '' Although Hall's is a Foucauldian/post-Freudian understanding of ``identi¢cation,'' drawing on the ``discursive and psychoanalytic repertoire,'' and quite di¡erent from that proposed here, he does usefully warn that identi¢cation is ``almost as tricky as, though preferable to, `identity' itself; and certainly no guarantee against the con- ceptual di¤culties which have beset the latter'' (p. 2). See also Andreas Glaeser, ``Divided in Unity: The Hermeneutics of Self and Other in the Postuni¢cation Berlin Police'' (Ph.D. Dissertation, Harvard University, 1997), esp. chapter 1.
  27. Craig Calhoun, Nationalism (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1997), 36¡.
  28. For an anthropological perspective, usefully extending the Barthian model, see Richard Jenkins, ``Rethinking Ethnicity: Identity, Categorization and Power,'' Ethnic and Racial Studies 17/2 (April 1994): 197^223, and Jenkins, Social Identity (London and New York: Routledge, 1996).
  29. Ge¨rard Noiriel, La tyrannie du national (Paris: Calmann-Le¨vy, 1991), 155^180; idem, ``L'identi¢cation des citoyens: Naissance de l'e¨tat civil re¨publicain,'' Gene© ses 13 (1993): 3^28; idem, ``Surveiller des de¨placements ou identi¢er les personnes? Contribution a© l'histoire du passeport en France de la Ier a© la III Re¨publique,'' Gene© ses 30 (1998): 77^100; Be¨atrice Fraenkel, La signature: gene© se d'un signe (Paris: Gallimard, 1992). A number of scholars, including Jane Caplan, historian at Bryn Mawr College, and John Torpey, sociologist at University of California, Irvine, are currently engaged in projects on passports and other identi¢cation documents.
  30. Michel Foucault, ``Governmentality,'' in Graham Burchell et al., editors, The Foucault E¡ect: Studies in Governmentality (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991), 87^104. Similar conceptions have been applied to colonial societies, espe- cially in regard to the way colonizers' schemes for classi¢cation and enumeration shape and indeed constitute the social phenomena (such as ``tribe'' and ``caste'' in India) being classi¢ed. See, in particular, Bernard Cohn, Colonialism and Its Forms of Knowledge: The British in India (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996).
  31. On the dilemmas, di¤culties, and ironies involved in ``administering identity,'' in authoritatively determining who belongs to what category in the implementation of race-conscious law, see Christopher A. Ford, ``Administering Identity: The Determination of `Race' in Race-Conscious Law,'' California Law Review 82 (1994): 1231^1285.
  32. Charles Tilly, Durable Inequality (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998).
  33. Melissa Nobles, ```Responding with Good Sense': The Politics of Race and Censuses in Contemporary Brazil,'' Ph.D. Dissertation, Yale University, 1995.
  34. See Hall, ``Introduction,'' 2¡; and Alan Finlayson, ``Psychology, psychoanalysis and theories of nationalism,'' Nations and Nationalism 4/2 (1998): 157¡.
  35. Pierre Bourdieu, The Logic of Practice, trans. Richard Nice (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1990).
  36. An extensive anthropological literature on African and other societies, for example, describes healing cults, spirit possession cults, witchcraft eradication movements, and other collective phenomena that help to constitute particular forms of self- understanding, particular ways in which individuals situate themselves socially. See studies ranging from classics by Victor Turner, Schism and Continuity in an African Society: A Study of Ndembu Village Life (Manchester: Manchester Uni- versity Press, 1957) and I. M. Lewis, Ecstatic Religion: An Anthropological Study of Spirit Possession and Shamanism (Harmondsworth, U.K.: Penguin, 1971) to more recent work by Paul Stoller, Fusion of the Worlds: An Ethnography of Pos- session among the Songhay of Niger (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989) and Janice Boddy, Wombs and Alien Spirits: Women, Men and The Zar Cult in Northern Sudan (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1989).
  37. For a poignant example, see Slavenka Drakulic's account of being ``overcome by nationhood'' as a result of the war in the former Yugoslavia, in Balkan Express: Fragments from the Other Side of the War, trans. Maja Soljan (New York: W.W. Norton, 1993), 50^52.
  38. For a good example of the latter, see Mary Waters's analysis of the optional, exceptionally unconstraining ethnic ``identities'' ^or what Herbert Gans has called the ``symbolic ethnicity'' ^of third-and fourth-generation descendants of European Catholic immigrants to the United States in Ethnic Options: Choosing Identities in America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990).
  39. Charles Tilly, From Mobilization to Revolution (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1978), 62¡.
  40. On the centrality of categorical commonality to modern nationalism, see Handler, Nationalism and the Politics of Culture in Quebec, and Calhoun, Nationalism, chapter 2.
  41. See, for example, the discussion of the ``anti-categorical imperative'' in Mustafa Emirbayer and Je¡ Goodwin, ``Network Analysis, Culture, and the Problem of Agency,''American Journal of Sociology 99/6 (May 1994): 1414.
  42. Lonsdale, ``When Did the Gusii or Any Other Group Become a Tribe?'' Kenya Historical Review 5/1 (1977): 355^368; Abner Cohen, Custom and Politics in Urban Africa: A Study of Migrants in Yoruba Towns (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969). Anthropologists were in£uenced by the work of Fredrick Barth, editor, Ethnic Groups and Boundaries: The Social Organisation of Cultural Di¡er- ence (London: Allen & Unwin, 1969), especially Barth's ``Introduction,'' 9^38. More recent and systematic constructivist accounts include Jean-Loup Amselle and Elikia M'Bokolo, editors, Au coeur de l'ethnie: Ethnies, tribalisme et e¨tat en Afrique (Paris: Editions la De¨couverte, 1985);
  43. Leroy Vail, editor, The Creation of Tribalism in Southern Africa (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988);
  44. Terence Ranger, ``The Invention of Tradition in Africa,'' in Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger, editors, The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge: Cambridge Uni- versity Press, 1983), 211^262.
  45. Identity talk has become popular among Africanists in recent years, and the typical insistence that identity is multiple is rarely followed by explanation of why what is multiplied should be considered identity. For a case in point, see Richard Werbner, ``Multiple Identities, Plural Arenas,'' in Richard Werbner and Terence Ranger, editors, Postcolonial Identities in Africa (London: Zed, 1996), 1^26. Afri- canist scholars have been critical of the concepts of race and ethnicity, but often still use ``identity'' in an unexamined way. See, for example, the special issue of Journal of Southern African Studies 20/3 (1994), coordinated by Saul Dubow, John Sharp, and Edwin N. Wilmsen. ``Ethnicity and Identity in Southern Africa.'' A more re£ective approach^deploying a range of terms to indicate di¡erent forms of a¤liation and examining what ``identical'' actually means in particular contexts ^may be found in Claude Fay, ```Car nous ne faisons qu'un': identite¨s, e¨quivalen- ces, homologies au Maasina (Mali),'' Cahier des Sciences Humaines 31/2 (1995) 427^456. Identitarian positions are severely criticized in Jean-Francois Bayart, L'illusion identitaire (Paris: Fayard, 1996).
  46. E. E. Evans-Pritchard, The Nuer: A Description of the Modes of Livelihood and Political Institutions of a Nilotic People (Oxford: Clarendon, 1940).
  47. See the pioneering study of Abner Cohen, ``Cultural Strategies in the Organization of Trading Diasporas,'' in Claude Meillassoux, editor, The Development of Indige- nous Trade and Markets (London: Oxford University Press, 1971).
  48. Paul Richards, Fighting for the Rain Forest: War, Youth and Resources in Sierra Leone (Oxford: Currey, 1996), 79.
  49. John Lonsdale, ``States and Social Processes in Africa,'' African Studies Review 24/2^3 (1981): 139^225.
  50. Jane Guyer, ``Household and Community,'' African Studies Review 24/2^3 (1981): 87^137; Jean-Loup Amselle, Logiques me¨tisses: Anthropologie de l'identite¨, en Afrique et ailleurs (Paris: Payot, 1990).
  51. Sharon Hutchinson, Nuer Dilemmas: Coping with Money, War, and the State (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), 29.
  52. Gerard Prunier, The Rwandan Crisis (New York: Columbia University Press, 1996) and Jean-Pierre Chre¨tien, Le De¨¢ de l'ethnisme: Rwanda et Burundi: 1990^ 1996 (Paris: Karthala, 1997). Similarly, Richards's account of con£ict in Sierra Leone is notable for his stress on networks over groups, on creolization over di¡erentiation, and on overlapping moral visions over con£icts of ``cultures'' (Richards, Fighting for the Rain Forest).
  53. For an elaboration of this argument, see Rogers Brubaker, ``Myths and Miscon- ceptions in the Study of Nationalism,'' in John Hall, editor, The State of the Nation: Ernest Gellner and the Theory of Nationalism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998).
  54. For a fuller version of this argument, see Brubaker, Nationalism Reframed, chap- ter 2. For a parallel argument about Yugoslavia, see Veljko Vujacic and Victor Zaslavsky, ``The Causes of Disintegration in the USSR and Yugoslavia,'' Telos 88 (1991): 120^140.
  55. Yuri Slezkine, ``The U.S.S.R. as a Communal Apartment, or How a Socialist State Promoted Ethnic Particularism,'' Slavic Review 53 (Summer 1994): 414^452;
  56. Terry D. Martin, ``An A¤rmative Action Empire: Ethnicity and the Soviet State, 1923^ 1938,'' Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Chicago, 1996.
  57. One of the best introductions to constructivist analysis in American history is Earl Lewis, ``Race,'' in Stanley Kutler, editors, Encyclopedia of the United States in the Twentieth Century (New York: Scribners, 1996), 129^160. See also Barbara Fields, ``Slavery, Race and Ideology in the United States of America,'' New Left Review 181 (May-June 1990): 95^118.
  58. Edmund Morgan, American Slavery, American Freedom: The Ordeal of Colonial Virginia (New York: Norton, 1975). More recent works on this formative period include a special issue of William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd Series, 54/1 (1997), ``Constructing Race: Di¡erentiating Peoples in the Early Modern World,'' and Ira Berlin, Many Thousands Gone: The First Two Centuries of Slavery in Northern America (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1998).
  59. Howard H. Bell (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1969). For an illuminating recent book on African American-African connections ^and the di¡ering ways in which linkages were made while cultural distinctions were emphasized ^see James Campbell, Songs of Zion: The African Methodist Episco- pal Church in the United States and South Africa (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995).
  60. For one such contribution, see Kwame Anthony Appiah, In My Father's House: Africa in the Philosophy of Culture (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992).
  61. Alisdair MacIntyre, After Virtue (Notre Dame, Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press, 1981), 22. 100. Iris Marion Young, ``Polity and Group Di¡erence: A Critique of the Ideal of Universal Citizenship,'' Ethics 99 (January 1989): 257, 258. See also Young's Justice and the Politics of Di¡erence (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990). 101. Young, ``Polity and Group Di¡erence,'' 267, 261. 102. Ibid., 267, 268. 103. See especially the lucid and in£uential books by Will Kymlicka: Liberalism, Com- munity, and Culture (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991) and Multicultural Citizen- ship: A Liberal Theory of Minority Rights (Oxford: Clarendon, 1995). 104. Adam Przeworski, ``Proletariat into a Class: The Process of Class Formation from Karl Kautsky's `The Class Struggle' to Recent Controversies,'' Politics and Society 7 (1977): 372. 105. Pierre Bourdieu, ``L'identite¨et la repre¨sentation: E è le¨ments pour une re¨£exion critique sur l'ide¨e de re¨gion,'' Actes de la recherche en sciences sociales 35 (1980): 63^72. 106. David Laitin, ``Marginality: A Microperspective,'' Rationality and Society 7/1 (January 1995): 31^57. 107. In a debate with Young, the philosopher Nancy Fraser has juxtaposed a politics of ``recognition'' to one of ``redistribution,'' arguing that both are needed, since some groups are exploited as well as stigmatized or unrecognized. Strikingly, both parties to the debate treat group boundaries as clear-cut, and both therefore conceive of progressive politics as involving intergroup coalitions. Both neglect other forms of political action that do not presuppose commonality or ``group- ness.'' Nancy Fraser, ``From Redistribution to Recognition? Dilemmas of Justice in a `Post-Socialist' Age,'' New Left Review 212 (1995): 68^93; Iris Marion Young, ```Unruly Categories,' A Critique of Nancy Fraser's Dual Systems Theory,'' ibid., 222 (1997): 147^160. 108.
  62. Margaret E. Keck and Kathryn Sikkink, Activists Beyond Borders: Advocacy Networks in International Politics (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1998);
  63. Audie Klotz, Norms in International Relations: The Struggle Against Apartheid (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1995). See also the classic study of Jeremy Boissevain, Friends of Friends: Networks, Manipulators and Coalitions (Oxford: Blackwell, 1974).

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Authors
Brubaker, R., & Cooper, F.
Affiliations
University of California, Los Angeles (US)
ORCID
Venue
Theory and Society
Publisher
Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published
2000-02
Volume
29
Issue
1
Pages
1-47
ISSN
  • 0304-2421 (ISSN-L)
  • 1573-7853
DOI
10.1023/a:1007068714468
OpenAlex
W4243971884
Cited by
3,139
References
1
Citations by year
2026: 117 · 2025: 195 · 2024: 139 · 2023: 227 · 2022: 185 · 2021: 212 · 2020: 236 · 2019: 246 · 2018: 202 · 2017: 142 · 2016: 138 · 2015: 129 · 2014: 132 · 2013: 100 · 2012: 122
FWCI
262.76
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Theory and Society (publishedVersion)
  • Deep Blue (University of Michigan) (submittedVersion)
Funders
  • Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University
  • Center for Advanced Study, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Philosophy › Cultural Identity and Representation
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Cultural Studies
  • Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Philosophy › Cultural, Media, and Literary Studies
Keywords
identity

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