Saturn's Deep Atmospheric Flows Revealed by the Cassini Grand Finale Gravity Measurements
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How deep do Saturn's zonal winds penetrate below the cloud level has been a decades‐long question, with important implications not only for the atmospheric dynamics but also for the interior density structure, composition, magnetic field, and core mass. The Cassini Grand Finale gravity experiment enables answering this question for the first time, with the premise that the planet's gravity harmonics are affected not only by the rigid body density structure but also by its flow field. Using a wide range of rigid body interior models and an adjoint based optimization for the flow field using thermal wind balance, we calculate the flow structure below the cloud level and its depth. We find that with a wind profile, largely consistent with the observed winds, when extended to a depth of around 8,800 km, all the gravity harmonics measured by Cassini are explained. This solution is in agreement with considerations of angular momentum conservation and is consistent with magnetohydrodynamics constraints.
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Gravity harmonics from the final Cassini orbit hint that Saturnian zonal jets retain their strength down to at least 100,000 bars.
“the interpretation of the gravity harmonics from the final Cassini orbit hints at Saturnian zonal jets retaining their strength down to at least 100,000 bars [23]”
From Deep rotating convection generates the polar hexagon on Saturn (2020) · cites this paper as [23]
Section 5 (Discussion and Conclusion; page unavailable) says Cassini’s gravity harmonics can be explained by winds extending about 8,800 km below the clouds. But the copy does not establish that the jets retain their strength down to at least 100,000 bars; Section 4 describes a depth-dependent wind decay, particularly outside the equatorial region. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe polar jet extends deep in Saturn's atmosphere, well below levels affected by seasonal variations.
“The survival of the hexagon during the polar night, the stability of the polar jet to the varying solar irradiation, the indirect determination of winds extending down at least to the ∼ 10 bar (S´ anchez-Lavega et al., 2011) level, and the recent determination of deep winds in Saturn's mid to low latitudes (Galanti et al., 2019) convincingly agree that the polar jet extends deep in the atmosphere,”
From Saturn atmospheric dynamics one year after Cassini: Long-lived features and time variations in the drift of the Hexagon (2020) · cites this paper as Galanti et al., 2019
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Self-citationDirect driving of simulated planetary jets by upscale energy transfer
Böning, V. G. A., Wulff, P., Dietrich, W., Wicht, J., & Christensen, U. R. (2022) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202244278 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Chachan, Y., & Stevenson, D. J. (2019) · Icarus · doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2018.12.020 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Qin, S., Kong, D., Zhang, K., Schubert, G., & Huang, Y. H. (2020) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ab6a9a · Cited by 5 · see citing works
A Dynamo Simulation Generating Saturn‐Like Small Magnetic Dipole Tilts
Yadav, R. K., Cao, H., & Bloxham, J. (2022) · Geophysical Research Letters · doi:10.1029/2021gl097280 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
From gas to ice giants: A unified mechanism for equatorial jets
Duer, K., Gavriel, N., Galanti, E., Tziperman, E., & Kaspi, Y. (2025) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.ads8899 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Self-citationThe Westward Drift of Jupiter's Polar Cyclones Explained by a Center‐of‐Mass Approach
Gavriel, N., & Kaspi, Y. (2023) · Geophysical Research Letters · doi:10.1029/2023gl103635 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Self-citationEddy-driven Zonal Jet Flows in the Laboratory
Read, P. L., Afanasyev, Y. D., Aurnou, J. M., & Lemasquerier, D. (2024) · Comptes Rendus Physique · doi:10.5802/crphys.213 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Afigbo, V. M., Hedman, M. M., Nicholson, P. D., French, R. G., Mankovich, C. R., Jerousek, R. G., & Dewberry, J. W. (2025) · Journal of Geophysical Research Planets · doi:10.1029/2024je008710 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
In Situ Formation of Super-Earth/Sub-Neptune Driven by the Planetary Rotation
Zhong, W. H., & Yu, C. (2021) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ac2cc5 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
A joint investigation of Saturn’s deep zonal flow via its gravitational field and Ohmic dissipation
Yuan, L., & Kong, D. (2023) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stad2556 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Observational constraints on the strength and depth of the zonal jets on Saturn
Galanti, E., Durante, D., IESS, L., & Kaspi, Y. (2025) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-025-57790-x · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Self-citationRevealing giant planet interiors beneath the cloudy veil
Guillot, T., & Fletcher, L. N. (2020) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-020-15431-5 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Self-citationUnderstanding dense hydrogen at planetary conditions
Helled, R., Mazzola, G., & Redmer, R. (2020) · SDL · doi:10.1038/s42254-020-0223-3 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
Isolating the Gravitational Influence of Uranus’s Winds Requires Close Passages Inward of the Rings
Mankovich, C. R., Parisi, M., Landau, D., & Dewberry, J. W. (2025) · The Planetary Science Journal · doi:10.3847/psj/ae1ae4 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Electronic opacities of Jupiter's and Saturn's interior from ab initio simulations
Preising, M., & Redmer, R. (2026) · Physics of Plasmas · doi:10.1063/5.0312028 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Revealing giant planet interiors beneath the cloudy veil
Guillot, T., & Fletcher, L. N. (2020) · RePEc: Research Papers in Economics · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Self-citationThe Critical Core Mass of Rotating Planets
Zhong, W. H., & Yu, C. (2022) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ac4261 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Experimental and numerical study of Jupiter’s dynamics : jets, vortices and zonostrophic turbulence
Lemasquerier, D. (2021) · doi:10.70675/32a18709z6f94z450az98cezf7dbb578518a · Cited by 2 · see citing works
In Situ exploration of the giant planets
Mousis, O., Atkinson, D. H., Ambrosi, R., Atreya, S., Banfield, D., Barabash, S., Blanc, M., Cavali'e, T., Coustenis, A., Deleuil, M., et al. (2019) · Experimental astronomy (Print) · doi:10.1007/s10686-021-09775-z · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Self-citationGlobal climate modelling of Saturn’s atmosphere, Part V: Large-scale vortices
Donnelly, P. T., Spiga, A., Guerlet, S., James, M. K., & Bardet, D. (2024) · Icarus · doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2024.116302 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Equatorial stratospheric oscillations in planetary atmospheres
Bardet, D., & Antuñano, A. (2024) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-443-15638-0.00018-6 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Symmetric Instability in a Boussinesq Fluid on a Rotating Planet
Zeng, Y., & Jansen, M. F. (2025) · Journal of Geophysical Research Planets · doi:10.1029/2025je009115 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
The Case for Future Gravity Science Investigations at Saturn with a Planetary Orbiter
Parisi, M. (2023) · The Planetary Science Journal · doi:10.3847/psj/ace7ce · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Saturn's Small‐Scale Winds Revealed by Its High‐Degree Gravity Field
Kim, S., Parisi, M., Mankovich, C. R., Buccino, D., & Yang, Y. (2025) · Geophysical Research Letters · doi:10.1029/2024gl113236 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Modeling Jupiter with a Multi-layer Spheroidal Liquid Mass Rotating Differentially
Cisneros-Parra, J. U., Martinez‐Herrera, F. J., & Montalvo-Castro, D. (2020) · American Journal of Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.11648/j.ajaa.20200801.12 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Numerical Simulations of Magnetic Effects on Zonal Flows in Giant Planets
Xue, S., & Lin, Y. (2024) · Journal of Geophysical Research Planets · doi:10.1029/2023je008280
Atmospheric Dynamics of Giants and Icy Planets
Sánchez-Lavega, A., & Heimpel, M. H. (2024) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-30648-3_51-2
Static effects of differential rotation on Jupiter’s shape, gravity field, and interior structure
Luo, S., Jia, C., & Ni, D. (2026) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202557385
Zeng, Y., Kang, W., Flierl, G. R., & Vallis, G. K. (2026) · The Planetary Science Journal · doi:10.3847/psj/ae6da7 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
The Dynamics of the Atmosphere of Saturn
Sánchez-Lavega, A. (2026) · doi:10.1093/9780197851500.003.0342
- Authors
- Galanti, E., Kaspi, Y., Miguel, Y., Guillot, T., Durante, D., Racioppa, P., & Iess, L.
- Affiliations
- Weizmann Institute of Science (IL)
- Leiden University (NL)
- Observatoire de la Côte d’Azur (FR)
- Sapienza University of Rome (IT)
- Corresponding author
- Galanti, E.
- Venue
- Geophysical Research Letters
- Publisher
- American Geophysical Union (AGU)
- Published
- 2019-01-28
- Volume
- 46
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 616-624
- ISSN
- 0094-8276 (ISSN-L)
- 1944-8007
- OpenAlex
- W2914092818
- Cited by
- 90
- References
- 37
- Citations by year
- 2026: 4 · 2025: 6 · 2024: 9 · 2023: 11 · 2022: 9 · 2021: 14 · 2020: 30 · 2019: 7
- FWCI
- 8.01
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Geophysical Research Letters (publishedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University) (submittedVersion)
- Leiden Repository (Leiden University) (submittedVersion)
- IRIS Research product catalog (Sapienza University of Rome) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- HAL (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- arXiv (Cornell University)
- Funders
- Agenzia Spaziale Italiana
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Astro and Planetary Science
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Ionosphere and magnetosphere dynamics
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Stellar, planetary, and galactic studies
- Keywords
- Saturn, zonal wind, Cassini Grand Finale, thermal wind balance, adjoint-based optimization, angular momentum conservation, magnetohydrodynamics, planetary interior models
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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