Cited by 598Education, Achievement, and GiftednessEmployee Performance and MotivationBehavioral Health and Interventions

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 106 of the 107 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.

Task complexity as a moderator of goal effects: a meta-analysis

Wood, Robert E., Mento, Anthony J., Locke, Edwin A.·1987·Journal of Applied Psychology

DOI 10.1037/0021-9010.72.3.416

Open this paper in CoChat — free account

Abstract

Much evidence exists that supports the use of goal setting as a motivational technique for enhancing task performance; howevei; little attention has been given to the role of task characteristics as potential moderating conditions of goal effects. Meta-analysis procedures were used to assess the moderator effects of task complexity for goal-setting studies conducted from 1966 to 1985 (n = 125). The reliability ofthe task complexity ratings was .92. Three sets of analyses were conducted: for goaldifficulty results (hard vs. easy), for goal specificity-difficulty (specific difficult goals vs. do-best or no goal), and for all studies collapsed across goal difficulty and goal specificity-difficulty. It was generally found that goal-setting effects were strongest for easy tasks (reaction time, brainstorming), d = .76, and weakest for more complex tasks (business game simulations, scientific and engineering work, faculty research productivity), d = .42. Implications for future research on goal setting and the validity of generalizing results are discussed.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1037/0021-9010.72.3.416

Cites

106 of 106 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Recomputing p-values needs the paper’s full text.

Claims the paper makes

This paper’s full text isn’t openly available, so its claims and self-check weren’t run. The registry and citation checks still apply.

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Handbook of Organizations.
Thompson, V. A., & March, J. G. (1966) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.2307/2090830 · Cited by 3,351
Cultivating competence, self-efficacy, and intrinsic interest through proximal self-motivation.
Bandura, A., & Schunk, D. H. (1981) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.41.3.586 · Cited by 2,675
Self-evaluative and self-efficacy mechanisms governing the motivational effects of goal systems.
Bandura, A., & Cervone, D. (1983) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.45.5.1017 · Cited by 1,511
Task complexity: Definition of the construct
Wood, R. E. (1986) · Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes · doi:10.1016/0749-5978(86)90044-0 · Cited by 1,393
Self-citation
Meta-Analysis: Cumulating Research Findings Across StudiesMeta-Analysis: Cumulating Research Findings Across Studies, by HunterJohn E., SchmidtFrank L., and JacksonGregg B. Beverly Hills, Cal.: Sage Publications, 1982, 176 pp., $17.95 cloth, $8.95 paper
Feldman, J. M., Hunter, J. E., Schmidt, F. L., & Jackson, G. B. (1984) · Academy of Management Review · doi:10.2307/258247 · Cited by 1,203
A review and meta-analysis of research on the relationship between behavioral intentions and employee turnover.
Steel, R. P., & Ovalle, N. K. (1984) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.69.4.673 · Cited by 1,060
Validity of self-evaluation of ability: A review and meta-analysis.
Mabe, P. A., & West, S. G. (1982) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.67.3.280 · Cited by 973
Effect of self-efficacy, goals, and task strategies on task performance.
Locke, E. A., Frederick, E., Lee, C., & Bobko, P. (1984) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.69.2.241 · Cited by 942
Combining results of independent studies.
Rosenthal, R. (1978) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.85.1.185 · Cited by 910
Development of a general solution to the problem of validity generalization.
Schmidt, F. L., & Hunter, J. E. (1977) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.62.5.529 · Cited by 769

Flagged first, then by citations

Show all 107 references

1 of the 107 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.

Sorted by citations

Items 501–597 of 597

Highway to the Danger Zone! Controlled and Automatic Pathways to Unsafe Behaviors in Response to Time Pressure
Beck, J. W. (2012) · University of Minnesota Digital Conservancy (University of Minnesota)
The Importance of Clarity in Educational Leadership Program Goals
Featherstone, M. V. (2013) · ScholarWorks (Boise State University)
Attending to the Details
Hennessey, B. A. (2001) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4615-0801-4_8
References
Greve, H. R. (2003) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511615139.007
The appropriateness of accounting budgets under uncertainty: new theory and new evidence
Hartmann, F. G. H. (1999) · UvA-DARE (University of Amsterdam)
Effects of Tasks on Information-Seeking Behavior in a Police Work Environment in the Context of Criminal Intelligence
tatil, S. (2010) · University of North Texas Digital Library (University of North Texas) · doi:10.12794/metadc28484
Triple-Bottom-Line Goals in a Management Control System: Experimental Effects on Commitment and TrustPreprint
Stace, R. (2012) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2133135
Implementation of Total Employee Involvement as part of a Continuous Improvement Program at a Fortune 500 Company
Carlson, K. L. (2012) · University of Minnesota Digital Conservancy (University of Minnesota)
A Goal-Based Perspective of Knowledge Spillover within Organizations
Merriman, K. K., & Nam, D. (2012)
Predicting athletic performance: The effects of judgment and motivation
Smallwood, M. E. (2009) · UTC Scholar (University of Tennessee at Chattanooga)
Identification and transfer of important factors for sustainability initiatives implementation
Andersson, P., & Lindberg, A. A. (2010) · Chalmers Publication Library (Chalmers University of Technology)
Critical success factors in developing 'accepted control loops'
Tuijl, V. H. H. (1996) · TU/e Research Portal
Advanced topics
Greve, H. R. (2003) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511615139.005
Foundations
Greve, H. R. (2003) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511615139.002
The Role of Self-Efficacy and Possible Selves as Related to Personal Goals in an Employee Wellness Program
Brady, A. (2011) · The Scholarship East Carolina University's Institutional Repository (East Carolina University)
Attentional pull: the off-task pull of emotions and on-task pull of goals
Merlo, K. L. (2015) · SMARTech Repository (Georgia Institute of Technology)
Dynamic equity theory : modeling pay for performance's cross-level effect
Phang, R. (2015) · DR-NTU (Nanyang Technological University) · doi:10.32657/10356/65643
Introduction
Greve, H. R. (2003) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511615139.001
Individual Differences in Stable Motivational Qualities and Skill Acquisition: Dispositional Goal Orientation and Self-Efficacy
Cullen, K. L. (2007)
Effective Goals for Complex Tasks: Towards a Broader Conceptualization of Specific-Difficult Goals
Schiro, S. F. (2018) · DSpace@MIT (Massachusetts Institute of Technology)
The Effects of Career Decision on Perceived Usability, Social Support, Self-efficacy at Agricultural High School Student
Yu, B. M., & Park, H. J. (2015) · 농촌지도와 개발 · doi:10.12653/jecd.2015.22.4.0445
Youth-Centered Counseling for HIV/STI Prevention and Promotion of Sexual and Reproductive Health: A Guide for Front-Line Providers
Vega, A. P., & Matilde Maddaleno, H. (2005)
Effects of The Call Center Counselors' Personal Characteristics and Perceived Organizational Support on Organizational Commitment and Organizational Citizenship Behavior
Noh, H., & Han, K. (2013) · Journal of Digital Convergence · doi:10.14400/jdpm.2013.11.7.123
“은 자기 효능감을 자신의 전체적인 수행능력에 대한 믿음으로부 터 초래되는 것으로서 과제상황을 다루기 위하여 요구되 는 특별한 행동을 수행하는 자신의 능력에 대한 개인적 인 평가라고 정의하였다[17].”
An Experimental Analysis of the Effect of Specificity on Compliance and PerformancePreprint
Boussalis, C., Feldman, Y., & Smith, H. E. (2014) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2539190
Effects of Visualization on Academic Performance
Michael, B. (2012) · Journal of Bioresource Management
Exploring adolescent perceptions of achievement motivation through participation in a high school wide summer reading initiative
McCool, K. A. (2014) · Digital Repository Service (Northeastern University) · doi:10.17760/d20128399
How to motivate employees : what science knows and the consulting industry does
Raulf, F. (2014) · Theseus (Ammattikorkeakoulujen)
A Study on the Competition Among Social Commerce Company Based on the Theory of Uses and Gratification of Online Consumer
An, S. J., & Kim, T. H. (2016) · The e-Business Studies · doi:10.20462/tebs.2016.10.17.5.3
Prioritizing Effort Allocation in a Multiple-Goal Environment
Byrd, T. G. (2009) · VTechWorks (Virginia Tech)
Possibilities and Limits of Traditional Performance Appraisals
Trost, A. (2017) · Management for professionals · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-54235-5_5
The Effects of Conscious and Primed Learning Goals on the Performance of a Complex Task
McRuer, G. J. K. (2015) · TSpace (University of Toronto)
Impact of Goal-setting and Feedback on Negotiators Performance in multilateral Negotiation
Ro, H. (2017) · Korean Journal of Industrial and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.24230/kjiop.v30i2.299-328
The Project Leader as Executive
Wegge, J., & Schmidt, K. (2014) · Management for professionals · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-44214-2_12
Balancierende Führung
Müller-Lindenberg, M. (2013) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-658-02192-4_7
A Study on the Determinants of Career Decision-Making Level of Adolescence: Focused on Ego-Identity, Social-Support, and the Mediating Effect of Self-Efficacy
황순덕, 이희선, & 김연희 (2017) · 한국공공관리학보 · doi:10.24210/kapm.2017.31.3.003
Quality Enhancement Through Goal-Setting: Examining the Effects of Goal Attributes and Feedback on Performance.
Phillips, P. (1992) · doi:10.31390/gradschool_disstheses.5347
“Specifically, previous research indicates that on complex tasks, the normal relationship between goal difficulty and performance is diminished (Wood et al., 1987).”
Background
Argument Writing On Goal Setting Theory of Locke
Taye, G. T. (2018) · Journal of Commerce & Behavioural Science
Effects of Mental Fitness Positive Psychology Program for Improvement of Adjustment to Military Life
Kim, M., Kim, H., & Ko, Y.-G. (2017) · Korean Journal of Industrial and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.24230/kjiop.v30i2.275-298
Effort gains in teams through fellow team members' affective social support
Wessolowski, K. (2016) · URN:NBN Resolver for Germany & Switzerland (German National Library)
Managing Performance [in Child Welfare Supervision]
Paul, M. E., Graef, M. I., Robinson, E. J., & Saathoff, K. (2009) · Lincoln (University of Nebraska)
Cognitive Style and Task Complexity for Interface Design : Decision Support for Swine Farm
유지혜 (2019) · Seoul National University Open Repository (Seoul National University)
Developmental Feedback, Ability, and Employee Effort in a Multitask Environment
Muncy, A. (2022) · Digital Archive @ GSU · doi:10.57709/17366348
GOAL-SETTING IN DGCE: A CASE STUDY OF XXX CUSTOMS OFFICE
Pratama, D. (2020) · JURNAL PERSPEKTIF BEA DAN CUKAI · doi:10.31092/jpbc.v4i2.966
Perceived Servant Leadership Behaviors and Employee Outcomes in National Collegiate Athletic Association Division III, Athletics Departments The Moderating Role of Trust-in-Leader and Organizational Tenure
Daly, S. (2020) · Scholarship & Creative Works - Digital UNC a service of University Libraries (University of Northern Colorado)
CONTENT AND LANGUAGE INTERGATED LEARNING IN FOREIGN LANGUAGE COURSES FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS
Gunina, N. A., Voyakina, E. Y., Koroleva, L. Y., & Mordovina, T. V. (2021) · Voprosy sovremennoj nauki i praktiki Universitet imeni V I Vernedskogo · doi:10.17277/voprosy.2021.02.pp.107-127
Enforcement Dilemmas and Behavioral Trade-offs
Feldman, Y. (2018) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781316480328.009
Personenbezogene Merkmale von Social Entrepreneuren (SE), Einstellungen & Motive
Hein, R. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-658-35145-8_8
The effects of goal setting on volleyball serving performance, anxiety, and self-efficacy
Dudson, M. K. (1993) · University of Canterbury Research Repository (University of Canterbury) · doi:10.26021/11758
Increasing App Engagement Behaviors via Goal-Enabling Technology Features: The Role of Goal Difficulty DimensionsPreprint
An, J., Bonfrer, A., & Eckert, C. (2021) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3863123
The differential effects of position, velocity, and acceleration feedback on motivation over time
Watola, D. J. (2005) · Defense Technical Information Center (DTIC) · doi:10.25335/gcce-g993
Theoretical Bases for Selecting Traceability Approaches to Support Software Development
Mohan, K., & Kumar, N. S. (2004) · Journal of the Association for Information Systems
Literaturverzeichnis
Konradt, U. (1996) · Deutscher Universitätsverlag eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-322-91378-4_6
Faglig elevsubjektivering: om at blive til i skolelivets fællesskaber, når læringsmål er til stede
Munkholm, M. (2020) · doi:10.7146/aul.396 · Cited by 1
Pay-For-Creativity: A Scheme To Inspire Creativity
Lam, S. J. (2021) · doi:10.32920/14652216.v1
Cognitive Challenges
Dowbiggin, A. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-78244-3_2
Index
Hagger, M. S., Cameron, L. D., Hamilton, K., Hankonen, N. E., & Lintunen, T. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108677318.047
Führung von Teams
Muethel, M., & Högl, M. (2011) · Gabler eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-8349-6549-3_17
How to Work Hard: Tight Linkage of Conscientiousness with Twelve Mechanisms of Goal Setting TheoryPreprint
Bates, T. C. (2023) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4399231
Reflecting on the Past and Targeting for the Future: Performance Feedback as a ContingencyPreprint
Zhang, Y. E., & Li, S. (2023) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4440363
Non-STEM-trained employees' creativity in using STEM knowledge or skills
He, H. (2023) · doi:10.32469/10355/97053
References
Cervone, D., & Bandura, A. (2023) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781394259069.refs
Goal-Setting Interventions in Sports: Public Goal Monitoring Improves Swimmers' Motivation and Performance
Šimić, A. (2023) · Primenjena psihologija · doi:10.19090/pp.v16i2.2433
Therapeutische Haltung: KlientIn als ExpertIn für ihr Leben, TherapeutIn als ExpertIn für den Prozess
Gmelch, M. (2024) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-68490-0_4
John Hattie’s failures of academic integrity and the fragility of the education reform movementPreprint
Vainker, S. (2024) · doi:10.31235/osf.io/rzjc9
LA INICIATIVA EMPRENDEDORA DE LAS ESTUDIANTES DE PREGRADO DE LA CIUDAD DE VILLAVICENCIO
Aristizábal, T. V. C., Aguirre, N. P., & Mosquera, G. A. Q. (2024) · Criterio Libre · doi:10.18041/1900-0642/criteriolibre.2024v22n40.11786
Public and private goal commitment : self-control and choice
Layton, R. L. (2014) · doi:10.54014/cha8-r2mz
Prelim pages
(2025) · Task-based language teaching · doi:10.1075/tblt.18.prelim
References
(2025) · Task-based language teaching · doi:10.1075/tblt.18.refs
Meta-analytic explorations
(2025) · Task-based language teaching · doi:10.1075/tblt.18.c7
What is second language cognitive task complexity?
(2025) · Task-based language teaching · doi:10.1075/tblt.18.c4
Table of contents
(2025) · Task-based language teaching · doi:10.1075/tblt.18.toc
Index
(2025) · Task-based language teaching · doi:10.1075/tblt.18.index
Acknowledgements
(2025) · Task-based language teaching · doi:10.1075/tblt.18.ack
Epilogue
(2025) · Task-based language teaching · doi:10.1075/tblt.18.c8
Overview of the domain
(2025) · Task-based language teaching · doi:10.1075/tblt.18.c3
Introduction to second language cognitive task complexity research
(2025) · Task-based language teaching · doi:10.1075/tblt.18.c1
Dedication
(2025) · Task-based language teaching · doi:10.1075/tblt.18.ded
Research synthetic approach and methods
(2025) · Task-based language teaching · doi:10.1075/tblt.18.c2
Series Editors’ preface
(2025) · Task-based language teaching · doi:10.1075/tblt.18.pre
Measuring the effects of second language cognitive task complexity
Sasayama, S., Malicka, A., & Norris, J. M. (2025) · Task-based language teaching · doi:10.1075/tblt.18.c6
Task characteristics
(2025) · Task-based language teaching · doi:10.1075/tblt.18.c5
Leistungsmotivation
Brunstein, J. C., & Heckhausen, H. (2025) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-69368-1_6
Personalizing Curriculum: Curation and Creation
Mahon, K. L. (2016) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/978-1-68123-589-920251012
References
(2007) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/978-1-60752-723-720251008
Learning in complex tasks: A comparison of cognitvie load and dual space theories.
Howe, A. (2013) · UPT. Syiah Kuala University Library (Syiah Kuala University)
Zielinhalt und Zielformulierung
Watzka, K. (2016) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-658-10169-5_10
Performance Management
Colquitt, A. (2016) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/978-1-68123-466-320251010
Increasing App Engagement Behaviors via Goal-Enabling Technology Features: The Role of Goal Difficulty Dimensions
An, J., Bonfrer, A., & Eckert, C. (2026) · Journal of Marketing Research · doi:10.1177/00222437261433457
“…has shown that end-goal and subgoal dif ﬁ culty have a medium to large effect on goal-congruent behavior: In their meta-analysis of 125 studies, Wood, Mento, and Locke (1987, p. 421, Table 3) report effect sizes (Cohen ’ s d) between .42 – .77 for end-goal dif ﬁ culty on task performance, and…”
Stratégies d’exploration dans la recherche d'information : effet de la motivation sur l’attention
Chauvet, É. (2017) · doi:10.70675/2e3639bezbcc0z40a0z9003z50e30beb2208
Application des normes sociales aux technologies persuasives : le cas de la rénovation énergétique
Corrégé, J.-B. (2018) · theses.fr (ABES) · doi:10.70675/c13bbb9az438az4077zb961zae30ada9defb
Intelligent gamification for individualized dyslexia remediation and in-home therapy
Jamshidifarsani, H. (2021) · theses.fr (ABES) · doi:10.70675/75c023e0z7910z4fafz815fz8136d148b39e
Goal Characteristics Questionnaire – Measuring Goals That Predict Motivation and Well-Being
Iwama, G. Y., Weber, F., Wirzberger, M., Prentice, M., & Lieder, F. (2026) · Psychological Test Adaptation and Development · doi:10.1027/2698-1866/a000146
Acting in complexity: knowledge dispersion challenges in high-level teams
Randolph-Seng, B., Hinojosa, A. S., Marin, A., & Randolph, A. F. (2026) · Journal of Knowledge Management · doi:10.1108/jkm-10-2025-1467
Effective use of communication channels
Yueng, M.-Y., & 楊文燕 (2005) · The HKU Scholars Hub (University of Hong Kong)
Validity Dynamism Of Personality Traits In The Selection Context
Shao, L. (2011) · eCommons (Cornell University)
Untitled work
(2012) · e_Buah · Cited by 89
Untitled work
(1999) · doi:10.1002/1520-6564(200023)10:4

Authors: Wood, R. E., Mento, A. J., & Locke, E. A.
Affiliations: UNSW Sydney (AU)
ORCID: Wood, Robert E.
Locke, Edwin A.
Venue: Journal of Applied Psychology
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 1987-08
Volume: 72
Issue: 3
Pages: 416-425
ISSN: 0021-9010 (ISSN-L)
1939-1854
DOI: 10.1037/0021-9010.72.3.416
OpenAlex: W2067506429
Cited by: 598
References: 107
Citations by year: 2026: 4 · 2025: 23 · 2024: 13 · 2023: 11 · 2022: 8 · 2021: 19 · 2020: 64 · 2019: 8 · 2018: 26 · 2017: 21 · 2016: 13 · 2015: 17 · 2014: 22 · 2013: 29 · 2012: 25
FWCI: 17.14
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Journal of Applied Psychology (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Education, Achievement, and Giftedness
Social Sciences › Business, Management and Accounting › Organizational Behavior and Human Resource Management › Employee Performance and Motivation
Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Behavioral Health and Interventions
Keywords: goal setting, task complexity, goal difficulty, goal specificity, task performance, motivation, moderator effects, reaction time, brainstorming, research productivity

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review

Task complexity as a moderator of goal effects: a meta-analysis

Abstract

Overview

Integrity signals

Verification

Claims the paper makes

Claims other papers make about this one

Citations

Cites

Cited by

Related

Metadata

Record

About these checks