Cultivating competence, self-efficacy, and intrinsic interest through proximal self-motivation.

Under proximal subgoals, children developed intrinsic interest in arithmetic activities that initially held little attraction for them.

“intrinsic interest in arithmetic activities that initially held little attraction for them”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The number of subtraction problems children solved under permissive choice conditions is a valid measure of their intrinsic interest in arithmetic.

Under proximal subgoals, children developed a sense of personal efficacy in arithmetic.

“developed a sense of personal efficacy”

The children's substantial quantitative deficiencies were confirmed by standardized measures of mathematical ability on three subtests of the Metropolitan Achievement Test, with bottom percentile ranks in computation (22), concepts (27), and problem solving (22).

“The children's substantial quantitative deficiencies were further confirmed by standardized measures of their mathematical ability obtained from the school district on three subtests of the Metropolitan Achievement Test (Durost, Bixler, Wrightstone, Prescott, & Balow, 1970).They occupied the bottom percentile ranks in computation (22), concepts (27), and problem solving (22).”

• cites Durost, Bixler, Wrightstone, Prescott, & Balow, 1970Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Distal goals had no demonstrable effects.

“Distal goals had no demonstrable effects.”

Perceived self-efficacy was positively related to accuracy of mathematical performance.

“Perceived self-efficacy was positively related to accuracy of mathematical performance”

Goal proximity fostered veridical self-knowledge of capabilities, as reflected in high congruence between judgments of mathematical self-efficacy and subsequent mathematical performance.

“goal proximity fostered veridical self-knowledge of capabilities as reflected in high congruence between judgments of mathematical self-efficacy and subsequent mathematical performance.”

Pilot work revealed that children who do not fully comprehend subtraction operations fail to grasp the nature of their deficiency because they faithfully apply an erroneous algorithm.

“Pilot work in the development of the test procedures revealed that children who do not fully comprehend subtraction operations fail to grasp the nature of their deficiency because they faithfully apply an erroneous algorithm.”

Perceived self-efficacy was positively related to intrinsic interest in arithmetic activities.

“Perceived self-efficacy was positively related to accuracy of mathematical performance and to intrinsic interest in arithmetic activities.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The number of subtraction problems children solved under permissive choice conditions is a valid measure of their intrinsic interest in arithmetic.

Under proximal subgoals, children achieved substantial mastery of mathematical operations.

“achieved substantial mastery of mathematical operations”

Perceived self-efficacy was accompanied by high-performance attainments and perseverence under conditions in which such a relationship would be expected to obtain.

“Perceived self-efficacy was accompanied by high-performance attainments and perseverence under conditions in which such a relationship would be expected to obtain.”

The average length of time it took children to complete each lesson was 21, 29, and 30 min for the proximal, distal, and no-goals conditions, respectively.

“The average length of time it took children to complete each lesson was 21, 29, and 30 min.for the proximal, distal, and no-goals conditions, respectively.”

Controls remained at a loss on how to subtract numbers from each other.

“whereas the controls remained at a loss on how to subtract numbers from each other (Table 1).”

It was mainly children in the proximally self-motivated condition, all of whom felt highly efficacious, who displayed the notable level of intrinsic interest.

“It was mainly children in the proximally self-motivated condition, all of whom felt highly efficacious, who displayed the notable level of intrinsic interest.”

Children in the no-goals condition judged their mathematical efficacy more highly than did the controls after but not before the performance posttest.

“Children in the latter condition judged their mathematical efficacy more highly than did the controls after but not before the performance posttest.”

Analysis of self-efficacy data shows a highly significant main effect of treatment, F(3, 36) = 10.13, p < .001.

“Analysis of these data shows the main effect of treatment, F(3, 36) = 10.13,p < .001,and the interaction between treatment and experimental phases, F(6, 72) = 5.96, p < .001, to be highly significant.”

Regardless of treatment conditions, self-percepts of moderate to high strength were positively related to interest.

“Regardless of treatment conditions, self-percepts of moderate to high strength were positively related to interest.”

The identical pattern of results is obtained on scores using a stringent criterion requiring perfect accuracy on all counts.

“The identical pattern of results is obtained on scores using a stringent criterion requiring perfect accuracy on all counts.”

Self-directed learning without goals produced a modest increase in self-efficacy at a borderline level of significance.

“Self-directed learning without goals produced a modest increase at a borderline level of significance.”

Children who pursued self-learning with distal (p < .01) or no goals (p < .01) were more skilled than the controls.

“Children who pursued the self-learning with distal (p < .01)or no goals (p < .01)were also more skilled than the controls”

In the posttest assessment, children showed comparable gains in self-efficacy and arithmetic performance on generalization problems and on the types of items used in the treatment phase.

“In the posttest assessment, children showed comparable gains in self-efficacy and arithmetic performance on generalization problems and on the types of items used in the treatment phase.”

The conditions of treatment affected the level of accuracy with which children appraised their mathematical efficacy, F(3, 36) = 3.06, p < .05.

“Results of the congruence analysis disclose that the conditions of treatment affected the level of accuracy with which children appraised their mathematical efficacy, F(3, 36) = 3.06, p < .05.”

On difficult arithmetic items, controls slackened their efforts (-27%) in the post-test.

“whereas the controls slackened their efforts (-27%) in the post-test.”

Past self-instructional performance was only marginally related to faultless post-test performance, r(28) = .25, p < .10.

“whereas past self-instructional performance was only marginally related to faultless post-test performance, r(28) = .25,p < .10.”

Children in the distal (54%), no-goals (51%), and control (60%) conditions displayed moderate congruence between their self-judged efficacy and their performance.

“Children in the distal (54%), nogoals (51%), and control (60%) conditions displayed moderate congruence between their self-judged efficacy and their performance.”

For all children, high perseverence was accompanied by high performance attainments on the more difficult problems, r(38) = .51, p < .001.

“For all children, high perseverence was accompanied by high performance attainments on the more difficult problems, r(38) = .51,p < .001.”

Strength of self-efficacy was a significant predictor of perfect arithmetic accuracy for the total sample, r(38) = .49, p < .001.

“strength of self-efficacy was a significant predictor of perfect arithmetic accuracy for the total sample, r(38)= .49,p < .001”

Children who developed their skills under proximal subgoals were highly accurate in their self-appraisals of efficacy (80%).

“In contrast, children who developed their skills under proximal subgoals were highly accurate in their self-appraisals of efficacy (80%).”

The differential pattern of perseverence yielded a highly significant Treatment × Phases interaction, F(3, 36) = 5.67, p < .005.

“This differential pattern of perseverence yielded a highly significant Treatment × Phases interaction, F(3, 36) = 5.67, p < .005.”

All three groups that engaged in self-directed instruction achieved significant gains beyond the p < .001 level of significance in subtractive skills before and after treatment.

“In comparing the children's subtractive skills before and after treatment, all three groups that engaged in self-directed instruction achieved significant gains beyond the p < .001level of significance”

On difficult arithmetic items, no-goals children were moderately more persistent after treatment than before (+39%).

“the distal (+22%) and the no-goals children (+39%) were moderately more persistent”

In separate comparisons between treatments, the proximal group exceeded all others in strength of perceived self-efficacy, as measured both before and after the behavioral posttest.

“In separate comparisons between treatments, the proximal group exceeded all others in strength of perceived self-efficacy, as measured both before and after the behavioral posttest (Table 1).”

On difficult arithmetic items, proximal children were markedly more persistent after treatment than before (+90%).

“the proximal children were markedly more persistent after treatment than before (+90%)”

There was some evidence to indicate that faultless arithmetic performance was better predicted from self-efficacy than from behavioral attainments in treatment.

“There was some evidence to indicate that faultless arithmetic performance was better predicted from self-efficacy than from behavioral attainments in treatment.”

For control children, the stronger the children's self-perceived efficacy, the longer they persevered, r(8) = .63, p = .025.

“For this group, the stronger the children's self-perceived efficacy, the longer they persevered, r(8) = .63,p = .025.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The influence of perceived self-efficacy on perseverence is best revealed on problems that cannot be solved however hard one tries.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Children who doubt their capabilities quit sooner than those who believe they can eventually master the task should they persevere.

Children who had employed proximal subgoals surpassed all other groups in subtractive skills.

“In pairwise comparisons, children who had employed proximal subgoals surpassed all the other groups in subtractive skills.”

• Also stated in: § Progress in Self-Directed Learning · plain

  “Although proximal subgoals, compared to distal goals, F(1, 27) = 3.66, p < .10,and no goals, F(1, 27) = 4.67, p < .05,fostered greater mastery of subtractive operations”

Regardless of conditions of treatment, persistency increased the likelihood of success.

“Regardless of conditions of treatment, persistency increased the likelihood of success.”

The alternate forms of the performance test yielded highly comparable scores (r = .87).

“The alternate forms yielded highly comparable scores (r = .87).”

Distal goals had no significant effect either on rate or level of self-directed instruction.

“distal goals had no significant effect either on rate or level of self-directed instruction.”

The main effect of treatment on the subtraction performance test was highly significant, F(3, 36) = 12.80, p < .001.

“The main effect of treatment was highly significant, F(3, 36) = 12.80, p < .001”

Proximal self-motivators produced more rapid mastery of the subject matter than did distal ones, F(1, 27) = 3.94, p < .10.

“proximal self-motivators produced more rapid mastery of the subject matter than did distal ones, F(1, 27) = 3.94, p < .10”

Self-directed instruction promoted mastery of subtractive operations in all three groups.

“Self-directed instruction promoted mastery of subtractive operations in all three groups”

Intragroup comparisons of changes in strength of self-efficacy yielded no significant differences for children in the control group.

“Intragroup comparisons of changes in strength of self-efficacy, evaluated by the t test for correlated means, yielded no significant differences for children in the control group (Table 1).”

Analysis of self-efficacy data shows a highly significant interaction between treatment and experimental phases, F(6, 72) = 5.96, p < .001.

“Analysis of these data shows the main effect of treatment, F(3, 36) = 10.13,p < .001,and the interaction between treatment and experimental phases, F(6, 72) = 5.96, p < .001, to be highly significant.”

Despite the fact that children in the distal and no-goal conditions acquired new information about mathematics and applied it repeatedly, the accurateness of their self-appraisals was no better than that of the controls, who did not have the benefit of substantial performance information for constructing their self-knowledge.

“Despite the fact that children in the distal and no-goal conditions acquired new information about mathematics and applied it repeatedly, the accurateness of their self-appraisals was no better than that of the controls, who did not have the benefit of substantial performance information for constructing their self-knowledge.”

The distal and no-goals groups did not differ from each other in subtractive skills.

“but the former two groups did not differ from each other.”

Analysis of variance of the number of subtraction problems that children chose to solve on their own yielded a significant treatment effect, F(3, 36) = 3.57, p < .05.

“Analysis of variance of the number of subtraction problems that children chose to solve on their own yielded a significant treatment effect, F(3, 36) = 3.57, p < .05.”

For control children, persistence was related to performance success on easy problems, r(8) = .61, p < .001.

“Even the easy problems were exceedingly difficult for the control children, and here too, persistence was related to performance success, r(8) = .61,p < .001.”

The interaction between treatment and experimental phases was highly significant, F(3, 36) = 12.55, p < .001.

“as was the interaction between treatment and experimental phases, F(3, 36) = 12.55, p < .001.”

The more self-instructional material the children mastered, the stronger was their sense of mathematical self-efficacy, r(28) = .42, p < .01.

“The more self-instructional material the children mastered, the stronger was their sense of mathematical self-efficacy, r(28) = .42,p < .01.”

On difficult arithmetic items, distal children were moderately more persistent after treatment than before (+22%).

“the distal (+22%) and the no-goals children (+39%) were moderately more persistent”

Children who engaged in self-directed learning either with distal or no goals did not differ significantly from each other.

“Children who engaged in self-directed learning either with distal or no goals did not differ significantly from each other”

Proximal self-motivators produced more rapid mastery than self-instruction without goals, F(1, 27) = 5.44, p < .05.

“or self-instruction without goals, F(1, 27) = 5.44, p < .05.”

Strength of self-efficacy was a significant predictor of perfect arithmetic accuracy for the self-instructed groups, r(28) = .40, p < .025.

“and for the self-instructed groups, r(28) = .40,p < .025”

The higher the level of self-efficacy at the end of the posttest, the greater the interest shown in arithmetic activities, r(38) = .27, p < .05.

“The results disclose that the higher the level of self-efficacy at the end of the posttest, the greater the interest shown in arithmetic activities, r(38) = .27,p < .05.”

The faster the children completed each lesson, the more efficacious they judged themselves to be, r(28) = .32, p < .05.

“Consistent with this expectation, the faster the children completed each lesson, the more efficacious they judged themselves to be, r(28) = .32,p < .05.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Performances that are readily achieved suggest a higher level of self-ability than do analogous attainments gained through slow, heavy labor.

Certain properties of goals, such as their specificity and level, help to provide clear standards of adequacy.

“Certain properties of goals, such as their specificity and level, help to provide clear standards of adequacy (Latham & Yukl, 1975;Locke, 1968;Steers & Porter, 1974).”

• cites Latham & Yukl, 1975 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Locke, 1968 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Steers & Porter, 1974 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Distal goals are too far removed in time to effectively mobilize effort or direct what one does in the here and now.

“distal goals are too far re-moved in time to effectively mobilize effort or to direct what one does in the here and now.”

Personal goals or standards do not automatically activate the evaluative processes that affect the level and course of one's behavior.

“Personal goals or standards do not automatically activate the evaluative processes that affect the level and course of one's behavior.”

Without standards against which to measure their performances, people have little basis for judging how they are doing or for gauging their capabilities.

“Without standards against which to measure their performances, people have little basis for judging how they are doing or for gauging their capabilities.”

Some suggestive evidence exists that the impact of goals on behavior is determined by how far into the future they are projected.

“Some suggestive evidence exists that the impact of goals on behavior is indeed determined by how far into the future they are projected (Bandura & Simon, 1977;Jeffery, 1977).”

• cites Bandura & Simon, 1977 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Jeffery, 1977Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Competence in subtraction requires several subskills, including subtracting a number from a larger one, subtracting zero, subtracting a number from itself, borrowing once, borrowing caused by zero, borrowing twice, borrowing from 1, and borrowing from zero.

“Research conducted at the Stanford Institute of Mathematical Studies has shown that competence in subtraction requires several subskills (Friend & Burton, 1981).These include subtracting a number from a larger one, subtracting zero, subtracting a number from itself, borrowing once, borrowing caused by zero, borrowing twice, borrowing from 1, and borrowing from zero.”

• cites Friend & Burton, 1981Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Conceptual analyses of intrinsic interest within self-efficacy theory and intrinsic motivation theory assign perceived competence a mediating role.

“Conceptual analyses of intrinsic interest within the framework of both self-efficacy theory (Bandura, 1981) and intrinsic motivation theory (Deci, 1975;Lepper & Greene, 1979) assign perceived competence a mediating role.”

• cites Bandura, 1981Not checked — no full text of the source
• cites Deci, 1975 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Lepper & Greene, 1979Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Focus on the distant future makes it easy to temporize and to slacken efforts in the present.

“Focus on the distant future makes it easy to temporize and to slacken efforts in the present.”

The processes underlying the development of intrinsic interest may be governed, at least in part, by goal proximity.

“The processes underlying the development of intrinsic interest may similarly be governed, at least in part, by goal proximity.”

Distal goals are too far removed in time to provide sufficiently clear markers of progress along the way to ensure a growing sense of self-efficacy.

“By contrast, distal goals are too far removed in time to provide sufficiently clear markers of progress along the way to ensure a growing sense of self-efficacy.”

Both anticipated satisfactions for matching attainments and dissatisfactions with insufficient ones provide incentives for self-directed actions.

“Both the anticipated satisfactions for matching attainments and the dissatisfactions with insufficient ones provide incentives for self-directed actions.”

Results of the multifaceted assessment support the superiority of proximal self-influence.

“Results of the multifaceted assessment provide support for the superiority of proximal self-influence.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The number of subtraction problems children solved under permissive choice conditions is a valid measure of their intrinsic interest in arithmetic.

Subgoal attainments provide indicants of mastery for enhancing self-efficacy.

“Subgoal attainments provide indicants of mastery for enhancing selfefficacy.”

Explicit goals are more likely than vague intentions to engage self-reactive influences in any given activity.

“Hence, explicit goals are more likely than vague intentions to engage self-reactive influences in any given activity.”

Children in the various treatment conditions did not differ in their mathematical deficiency.

“Children in the various treatment conditions did not differ in this respect.”

Proximal subgoals can serve as an important vehicle in the development of self-percepts of efficacy.

“Proximal subgoals can also serve as an important vehicle in the development of self-percepts of efficacy.”

Proximal subgoals provide immediate incentives and guides for performance.

“Proximal subgoals provide immediate incentives and guides for performance”

Goal proximity is especially critical because the more closely referential standards are related to ongoing behavior, the greater the likelihood that self-influences will be activated during the process.

“Goal proximity, a third property, is especially critical because the more closely referential standards are related to ongoing behavior, the greater the likelihood that self-influences will be activated during the process.”

When performances are gauged against lofty, distal goals, the large negative disparities between standards and attainments are likely to attenuate the level of self-satisfaction experienced along the way.

“When performances are gauged against lofty, distal goals, the large negative disparities between standards and attainments are likely to attenuate the level of self-satisfaction experienced along the way.”

An important, cognitively based source of self-motivation relies on the intervening processes of goal setting and self-evaluative reactions to one's own behavior.

“An important, cognitively based source of self-motivation relies on the intervening processes of goal setting and self-evaluative re-actions to one's own behavior.”

When people aim for and master desired levels of performance, they experience a sense of satisfaction.

“When people aim for, and master, desired levels of performance, they experience a sense of satisfaction (Locke, Cartledge, & Knerr, 1970).”

• cites Locke, Cartledge, & Knerr, 1970 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

A sense of personal efficacy in mastering challenges is apt to generate greater interest in the activity than is self-perceived inefficacy in producing competent performances.

“A sense of personal efficacy in mastering challenges is apt to generate greater interest in the activity than is selfperceived inefficacy in producing competent performances.”

Investigations of intrinsic interest have been concerned almost exclusively with the effects of extrinsic rewards on interest when it is already highly developed.

“Investigations of intrinsic interest have been concerned almost exclusively with the effects of extrinsic rewards on interest when it is already highly developed.”

By making self-satisfaction conditional on a certain level of performance, individuals create self-inducements to persist until their performances match internal standards.

“By making self-satisfaction conditional on a certain level of performance, individuals create self-inducements to persist in their efforts until their performances match internal standards.”

To the extent that proximal subgoals promote and authenticate a sense of causal agency, they can heighten interest through their effects on perception of personal causation.

“To the extent that proximal subgoals promote and authenticate a sense of causal agency, they can heighten interest through their effects on perception of personal causation.”

The satisfactions derived from subgoal attainments can build intrinsic interest.

“The satisfactions derived from subgoal attainments can build intrinsic interest.”

Results of microanalyses of congruence between self-efficacy judgment and performance indicate that the optimal cutoff value of efficacy strength varies across activities, depending on the complexity and the variety of skills they require.

“Results of microanalyses of congruence between self-efficacy judgment and performance indicate that the optimal cutoff value of efficacy strength varies across activities, depending on the complexity and the variety of skills they, require.”

Goal proximity fosters veridical self-knowledge of capabilities.

“However, it is noteworthy that in addition to its other benefits, goal proximity fosters veridical self-knowledge of capabilities.”

When progress is gauged against distal goals, similar accomplishments may prove disappointing because of wide disparities between current performance and lofty future standards.

“When progress is gauged against distal goals, similar accomplishments may prove disappointing because of wide disparities between current performance and lofty future standards.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: When progress is gauged against distal goals, similar accomplishments may prove disappointing because of wide disparities between current performance and lofty future standards.

Intrinsic interest seems to covary most closely with the more long-standing indicants of actual or perceived competence, that is, the standardized measures of competence in mathematical subfunctions and perceived self-efficacy in groups whose preexisting self-percepts were either unaltered or changed only marginally.

“Intrinsic interest seems to covary most closely with the more long-standing indicants of actual or perceived competence, that is, the standardized measures of competence in mathematical subfunctions and perceived selfefficacy in groups whose preexisting self-percepts were either unaltered or changed only marginally.”

No significant sex differences were found on any of the measures at either the pretest or posttest assessments.

“No significant sex differences were found on any of the measures at either the pretest or posttest assessments”

The above results are consistent with previous findings that judgments of self-efficacy are not simply reflectors of past performance.

“The above results are consistent with previous findings that judgments of self-efficacy are not simply reflectors of past performance (Bandura, 1977a(Bandura, , 1977b)).”

• cites Bandura, 1977aNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Bandura, 1977bNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Performances that draw on only a few skills reduce the likelihood of overestimating personal capabilities by overweighting a mastered subpart.

“Performances that draw on only a few skills reduce the likelihood of overestimating personal capabilities by overweighting a mastered subpart.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Performances that draw on only a few skills reduce the likelihood of overestimating personal capabilities by overweighting a mastered subpart.

The present findings lend support to the general thesis that skills cultivated through proximal standards of competency build interest in disvalued activities.

“The present findings lend support to the general thesis that skills cultivated through proximal standards of competency build interest in disvalued activities.”

Having mastered particular subtractive operations on simpler exemplars, children applied them accurately to more complex forms.

“Having mastered particular subtractive operations on simpler exemplars, children applied them accurately to more complex forms.”

Judgments of self-efficacy reflect an inferential process in which the self-ability inferences drawn from one's performances vary, depending on how much weight is placed on personal and situational factors that can affect how well one performs.

“Rather they reflect an inferential process in which the self-ability inferences drawn from one's performances vary, depending on how much weight is placed on personal and situational factors that can affect how well one performs.”

The evaluative standards against which ongoing performances are appraised constitute an additional factor that determines how well people judge their capabilities.

“The evaluative standards against which ongoing performances are appraised constitute an additional factor that determines how well people judge their capabilities.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The evaluative standards against which ongoing performances are appraised constitute an additional factor that determines how well people judge their capabilities.

Consequently, somewhat higher cutoff values of efficacy strength become predictive of success.

“Consequently, some-what higher cutoff values of efficacy strength become predictive of success.”

Skill development under conditions in which progress toward competence is somewhat ambiguous does not improve self-knowledge.

“In contrast, skill development under conditions in which progress toward competence is somewhat ambiguous does not improve self-knowledge.”

For the mathematical performances examined in this study, an efficacy strength of 40 provided the optimal cutoff criterion.

“For the mathematical performances examined in this study, an efficacy strength of 40, which reflects a moderate degree of assurance, provided the optimal cutoff criterion.”

At the pretest phase, the groups did not differ on any of the measures.

“At the pretest phase, the groups did not differ on any of the measures.”

Experience with proximal self-motivators enhances the total level of subsequent productivity.

“It would seem that experience with proximal self-motivators enhances the total level of subsequent productivity, since children in this condition were as prolific on the competing task and more so on the arithmetic one.”

Results of the combined studies attest to the motivating potential of proximal goals, whether they are suggested or spontaneously generated, or whether the self-sustained behavior is tractable or very difficult to produce.

“Results of the combined studies attest to the motivating potential of proximal goals, whether they are suggested or spontaneously generated, or whether the self-sustained behavior is tractable or very difficult to produce.”

Self-efficacy judgments are unconfounded by future posttest performance.

“Self-efficacy judgments are un-confounded by future posttest performance”

It is highly unlikely that self-percepts of efficacy played no role whatsoever in performance attainments during the self-directed learning.

“but it is highly unlikely that self-percepts of efficacy played no role whatsoever in performance attainments during the self-directed learning.”

Results of the present study confirm the influential role of proximal self-motivators in the cultivation of competence, self-percepts of efficacy, and intrinsic interest.

“Results of the present study confirm the influential role of proximal self-motivators in the cultivation of competence, self-percepts of efficacy, and intrinsic interest.”

In activities that depend on diverse subskills, knowledge of some of them, especially the more directly observable ones, raises the level of assurance that one might be able to perform successfully.

“In activities that depend on diverse subskills, knowledge of some of them, especially the more directly observable ones, raises the level of assurance that one might be able to perform successfully.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: In activities that depend on diverse subskills, knowledge of some of them, especially the more directly observable ones, raises the level of assurance that one might be able to perform successfully.

In the present experiment, children could not transform distal into proximal self-motivators because, not knowing how to divide, they could not partition the entire instructional enterprise into equivalent subunits.

“In the present experiment, children could not transform distal into proximal selfmotivators because not knowing how to divide, they could not partition the entire instructional enterprise into equivalent subunits.”