The "testing" phenomenon: Not gone but nearly forgotten.

“In such designs, the processing type is confounded with the processing time, which can prevent robust conclusions concerning the benefits of RP (see Glover, 1989).”

“…clear that there is a single mechanism underlying all retrieval-based learning), but focus on the benefits of recall practice considering that test practice benefits are largest after taking a recall practice test as compared to a recognition practice test (Carpenter & DeLosh, 2006; Glover, 1989).”

“Further, the testing effect is greater when the initial retrieval involves more effort than when it requires less effort on the part of the learner (e.g., Carpenter & DeLosh, 2006; Glover, 1989; Kornell, Hays, & Bjork, 2009; Pyc & Rawson, 2009).”

“Generally speaking, rehearsal can enhance memory consolidation (Anderson, Bjork, & Bjork, 1994; Glover, 1989), improving memory for facts, such as spatial and temporal details, and activity components of the events (Marsh, Tversky, & Hutson, 2005).”

“The five remaining studies in Table 1 measured undergraduate student performance on educationally relevant materials in academic disciplines outside of medicine (Glover 1989.”

“The effect of testing on learning and retention (known as the testing effect) has been demonstrated in psychological research and in several educational contexts including life-support courses (Glover 1989; Roediger et al. 2002; Roediger & Karpicke 2006; Kerfoot et al. 2007; Kromann et al. 2009).”

“Retrieval practice is believed to be more beneficial the more effortful, or complete the retrieval (Bjork, 1975; Glover, 1989; Pyc & Rawson, 2009; Whitten & Bjork, 1977).”

“For example, the elaborative processing view (Glover, 1989; Whitten and Leonard, 1980) holds that memory performance on the final memory test will depend on how elaborative the intervening retrieval phase is.”

“This is already known to be the case in other domains (Bjork & Whitten, 1974; Carpenter & DeLosh, 2006; Glover, 1989; Kang et al., 2007; McDaniel, Anderson, Derbish, & Morrisette, 2007).”

“Indeed, several notable studies have considered response latency for the detection of repetitions or for the retrieval of a previously studied item as an index of desirable difficulty (e.g., Glover, 1989; Karpicke & Roediger, 2007; Logan & Balota, 2008; Maddox & Balota, 2015; Pyc & Rawson, 2009).”

“20_Reisberg_ch20.indd 7 10/13/2012 7:19:36 PM 8 memory in educational settings opportunities (e.g., Glover, 1989).”

“Glover (1989) contributed to the resolution of this issue in an exploration of the mnemonic value of various practice test formats, including a true-false recognition test.”

“Reviewing recorded lectures after attending a lecture is similar to re-reading or reviewing material, which may not be the most efficient study strategy; rereading often leads to high immediate recall performance but a reduction in their delayed recall performance, which suggests that students are not deeply learning…”

“Specifically, higher cognitive effort during active retrieval produces greater learning gains, whereas when retrieval becomes easier and cognitive effort declines, the benefits of retrieval practice may diminish (Glover, 1989; Karpicke & Roediger, 2007; Pyc & Rawson, 2009).”

“Additionally, recall tests are suggested to be more effective in terms of long-term memory performance, as compared to various types of recognition memory tests (e.g., Glover, 1989; McDaniel, Anderson, Derbish, & Morrisette, 2007; see also the meta-analytic review of Rowland, 2014).”

“Moreover, a body of work promoting the beneficial effects of continuous assessment argues for a testing effect, that is, test-taking generally facilitates subsequent learning and retention (Glover 1989; McDaniel and Fisher 1991; Roediger and Karpicke 2006).”

“Recall enhanced learning (previously known as test enhanced learning) describes the improvements in short- and long- term memory that occurs after testing events (Glover, 1989; Roediger and Karpicke, 2006a).”

“Headache-specific knowledge was not evaluated at T3 to minimize testing effects 17,18 and participant burden.”

“For more than a century, research has shown that recalling studied information is highly beneficial for memory retention (e.g., Abbott, 1909; Glover, 1989; Rothkopf, 1966; Spitzer, 1939; Yuille, 1973).”

“…the view that not only retrieval practice with feedback but also retrieval practice without feedback may reduce time-dependent forgetting, which indicates that successful retrieval during practice potentiates later recall at test (Glover, 1989; Halamish & Bjork, 2011; Pashler et al., 2005).”

“We use two different initial testing formats, cued-recall and multiple-choice, to examine the generalization of results to the situation when the initial test and the final test are in different format, particularly when the initial test is a multiple-choice test, which has been shown to be less effective than a cued-…”

“Second, the multiple-choice format for both practice and memory test questions may have inflated memory scores by encouraging item-specific recognition or reliance on superficial fea - tures rather than genuine recall (see Glover, 1989; Kang et al., 2007; Roediger & Karpicke, 2006).”

“…Dual-process; retrieval practice; aging; recollection; familiarity An extensive literature has revealed that taking tests – or retrieval practice – benefits long term retention of material, a finding referred to as the “testing effect” (Glover, 1989; Roediger & Karpicke, 2006a; McDermott, 2021).”

“There is also strong evidence (Glover 1989; Morris et al. 1977; McDaniel et al. 2007; Kang et al. 2007) that suggests that the more effort-full free recall format for quizzes (such as short text quizzes or programming tasks) perform better in terms of learning outcomes compared to cued recall or…”

“The absence of testing advantages over restudy on an immediate final test in old/new recognition was anticipated for semantically-distinct foils because that effect has been obtained repeatedly (e.g. Carpenter & DeLosh, 2006; Glover, 1989).”

“In the lab-based studies that employed recall-based quizzes, students were required to supply a specific answer, often a specific word or phrase (Bjork and Whitten, 1974; Glover, 1989; Carpenter and DeLosh, 2006; McDaniel et al., 2013).”

“These theories suggest that, similar to overt retrieval (Glover, 1989; Pyc & Rawson, 2009; Rowland, 2014; Yang et al., 2021), covert retrieval enhances learning by reinforcing memory through cognitive effort and re-exposure.”

“…amount of research (see Marsh et al., 2007; McDaniel, Roediger, et al., 2007; Pashler et al., 2007) and calls for the use of testing as a learning tool in the classroom (e.g., Glover, 1989; Leeming, 2002; Roediger & Karpicke, 2006a) The generalizability of the testing effect is well established.”

“50,53), which holds the time between sample presentation and WM test constant.”

“…format can result in more accurate drawings due to students’ ability to continuously reference their learning materials (Fisher & Harris, 1974; Glover, 1989), this condition may also inhibit the active cognitive process of reconstructing learning content from memory (Karpicke et al., 2014;…”

“When information is retrieved from memory, its representation in memory is modified to make it more accessible at a later time (Glover, 1989).”

“In other words, test enhances memory performance even when the types of retrieval (e.g., free recall, cued recall, recognition) differ between practice and the final test (e.g., Glover, 1989; Kang, McDermott, & Roediger, 2007; Karpicke & Blunt, 2011).”

“Several researches have proven that taking an assessment promotes improved retention than re-studying the material for an equivalent duration (Roediger & Karpicke, 2006; A. Glover, 1989).”

“…and retrieval practice, respectively), a smaller body of evidence has shown that combining them is a particularly effective learning strategy (Carpenter & DeLosh, 2005; Glover, 1989, Experiment 3; Higham et al., 2023; Thios & D’Agostino, 1976; see Latimier et al., 2021 for a meta-analysis).”

“…the distribution‑ based bifurcation model, and episodic context theory (E. L. Bjork & Bjork, 2011; R. A. Bjork, 1994; R. A. Bjork & Bjork, 1992; Glover, 1989; Halamish & Bjork, 2011; Howard & Kahana, 2002; Karpicke & Roediger, 2007; Kornell et al., 2011; Lehman & Malmberg, 2013; Pyc & Rawson,…”

“1 – 4].”

“Headache-specific knowledge was not part of T3 to minimize testing effects [24,25] and participant burden.”

“That is, prior retrieval practice tends to enhance later memory relative to a condition in which no initial retrieval practice takes place (the testing effect, Glover, 1989; Roediger & Karpicke, 2006; see McDer-mott, 2021 for review).”

“For example, R. Hoste (1981) in Britain and S.A. Glover (1989) in Indiana found that teacher-made tests accurately predicted pupil performance in final “O” level examinations.”