Practicing Retrieval Facilitates Learning

Carpenter & DeLosh (2006) report evidence consistent with the hypothesis that free recall is a more powerful memory enhancer than recognition.

“The literature on this question is not extensive, but Carpenter & DeLosh (2006) report evidence consistent with the hypothesis that free recall is a more powerful memory enhancer than recognition.”

• cites Carpenter & DeLosh 2006 sourceSupported

College students do not appreciate that retrieval practice helps learning.

“But if you ask college students, who are fairly sophisticated learners, how to best learn new information, their answers suggest that they do not appreciate this fact (Blasiman et al. 2017, Karpicke et al. 2009, Kornell & Bjork 2007, McCabe 2011).”

• cites Blasiman et al. 2017 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Karpicke et al. 2009 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Kornell & Bjork 2007 sourceSupported

The beneficial effects of retrieval practice have been demonstrated across a variety of materials, including word lists, paired associates, nonverbal materials, face-name pairings, prose passages, science articles, videotaped lectures, and narrated animations.

“The beneficial effects of retrieval practice have been demonstrated across a variety of materials, as reviewed by Dunlosky et al. (2013).”

• Also stated in: § Materials · plain

  “Effects of retrieval have also been seen on word lists (Carpenter & DeLosh 2006), paired associates (Allen et al. 1969, Carrier & Pashler 1992), nonverbal materials (Carpenter & Pashler 2007, Kang 2010, Rohrer et al. 2010), and face-name pairings (Morris & Fritz 2000).More educationally relevant stimuli demonstrate similar effects, as seen with prose passages (Glover 1989, Roediger & Karpicke 2006”

• cites Dunlosky et al. 2013 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Carpenter & DeLosh 2006 sourcePartly supported

  The paper’s Method describes experiments using word lists, and its introduction reports a testing benefit for previously presented pictures; it also discusses a study using general-knowledge facts. These passages support benefits across several kinds of material, but our copy does not establish the full list attributed to it, particularly science articles, videotaped lectures, and narrated animations. No page numbers are available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Butler & Roediger 2007 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Cognitive tasks that produce robust effects in experimental settings are often poorly suited for individual differences studies due to low between-participant reliability.

“Further, it is often the case that cognitive tasks that produce robust effects in experimental settings are poorly suited for individual differences studies due to low between-participant reliability (Hedge et al. 2018).”

• cites Hedge et al. 2018 sourceSupported

Core classroom content can be better remembered on unit exams after low-stakes multiple-choice quizzing with immediate correct-answer feedback.

“In other studies, we have also repeatedly demonstrated that core classroom content can be better remembered on unit exams after lowstakes multiple-choice quizzing with immediate correct-answer feedback (McDaniel et al. 2007(McDaniel et al. , 2011(McDaniel et al. , 2013;;Roediger et al. 2011a).”

• cites McDaniel et al. 2007 sourceSupported
• cites McDaniel et al. 2011 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites McDaniel et al. 2013 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The benefit of prior testing is much greater after 1 week than after 10 minutes.

“Other studies have shown a testing effect even at short interval; for example, Runquist (1983) found a benefit of prior testing after just 10 minutes, although the amount of benefit was much greater after 1 week.”

• cites Runquist 1983 sourceSupported

Retrieval practice can enhance near transfer.

“The phenomenon of retrieval-induced facilitation has ties to the literature on transfer, which has shown that retrieval practice can enhance near transfer (Butler 2010, Kang et al. 2011, Rohrer et al. 2010).”

• cites Butler 2010 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Kang et al. 2011 sourceSupported
• cites Rohrer et al. 2010 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Taking an initial quiz led to better performance than restudying on the unit exam (0.81 vs 0.62 proportions correct).

“As can be seen in Figure 5c, restudying the selected facts did not provide the same enhancement on the unit exam (see also Roediger et al. 2011a); taking an initial quiz led to much better performance than doing what amounts to studying the answer key of a quiz (0.81 and 0.62 proportions correct, respectively), with correct performance in the no-test condition at 0.55.”

• cites Roediger et al. 2011aNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

On the end-of-semester test, taking an initial quiz facilitated performance relative to restudying (0.66 vs 0.50).

“Taking an initial quiz facilitated performance relative to restudying (0.66 and 0.50, respectively).”

Restudying selected facts did not provide the same enhancement on the unit exam as taking an initial quiz.

“As can be seen in Figure 5c, restudying the selected facts did not provide the same enhancement on the unit exam (see also Roediger et al. 2011a); taking an initial quiz led to much better performance than doing what amounts to studying the answer key of a quiz (0.81 and 0.62 proportions correct, respectively), with correct performance in the no-test condition at 0.55.”

• cites Roediger et al. 2011aNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The earlier benefits of quizzing remained on a surprise end-of-semester test.

“When a surprise end-of-semester test was given to these same students, the earlier benefits of quizzing remained (Figure 5d).”

Providing an answer key without asking students to attempt to retrieve is not as effective as quizzing.

“Providing an answer key (but not asking students to attempt to retrieve) is not as effective.”

For multiple-choice unit exam questions, the likelihood of a correct answer was greater for either quiz type (0.84 for multiple choice and 0.85 for short answer) than when an initial quiz had not occurred (0.69 correct).

“Specifically, for the questions in multiple-choice format on the unit exam, the likelihood of a correct answer was greater for either quiz type (0.84 and 0.85 proportion of correct answers for multiple choice and short answer, respectively) compared to when an initial quiz had not occurred (0.69 correct).”

For short-answer unit exam questions, students performed better if the question had been previously quizzed (0.60 for multiple choice and 0.61 for short answer) than if not quizzed (0.40 correct).

“Similarly, when the unit exam question was in the short-answer format, students performed better if the question had been previously quizzed (0.60 and 0.61 for multiple choice and short answer, respectively) relative to not quizzed (0.40 correct).”

The effects of prior testing are long-lasting.

“A final observation with respect to retention interval is that the effects of prior testing are long-lasting, as can be seen in Figures 2 and 4 and as discussed below for even longer intervals in the extensions to classroom settings.”

Retrieval practice is one of the most effective ways of solidifying new knowledge.

“Indeed, retrieval practice is one of the most effective ways of solidifying new knowledge, although this fact is underappreciated by most learners (and teachers).”

Taking an initial test relatively early-before too much forgetting set in-helped performance more than a delayed initial test.

“Further, taking the initial test relatively earlybefore too much forgetting set in-helped performance more than a delayed initial test.”

• cites Spitzer 1939 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

No materials have been identified for which retrieval practice does not help memory, in the absence of floor or ceiling effects or other confounding issues.

“Thus far, though, no materials have been identified for which retrieval practice does not help memory (in the absence of floor or ceiling effects or other confounding issues).”

The benefit of initial tests without feedback can only be seen when the learner is reasonably successful on the initial test.

“Karpicke (2017; see also Karpicke et al. 2014b), who suggests that the benefit of initial tests (without feedback) can only be seen when the learner is reasonably successful on the initial test.”

• cites Karpicke 2017 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Karpicke et al. 2014bNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Taking a test can at least partially immunize a learner against forgetting.

“This pattern of results (since then demonstrated with other participant groups and other materials) has led researchers to suggest that taking a test can at least partially immunize a learner against forgetting.”

• cites Spitzer 1939 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Practicing retrieval shortly after learning can slow the forgetting process.

“Specifically, practicing retrieval shortly after learning can slow the forgetting process.”

Rowland's (2014) meta-analysis demonstrates that the benefit of retrieval practice relative to restudy is sensitive to stimulus type, with prose and paired associates registering greater effects than single words or other materials.

“Rowland's (2014) meta-analysis demonstrates that the benefit of retrieval practice relative to restudy is indeed sensitive to the moderating influence of stimulus type, with prose and paired associates registering greater effects than single words or other materials (for which the number of relevant studies was rather low).”

• cites Rowland 2014 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Even sophisticated learners can fail to appreciate that retrieval practice is an especially effective learning tool when the test is given after a substantial delay.

“Even sophisticated learners can fail to appreciate that retrieval practice is an especially effective learning tool when the test is given after a substantial delay.”

• cites Roediger & Karpicke 2006aNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Students who had received an initial test predicted that they would remember less well one week later than students who had only studied.

“When asked to predict (on the first day, after learning) how well they would remember the information on a test one week later, the students who had received an initial test predicted that they would do worse than those who had only studied.”

• cites Roediger & Karpicke 2006aNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The format of the initial test influences the likelihood of observing a testing effect.

“The format of the initial test influences the likelihood of observing a testing effect.”

Giving feedback on the initial test boosts its effects on later memorability, overcoming issues with poor immediate performance.

“Giving feedback on the initial test boosts its effects on later memorability, overcoming issues with poor immediate performance.”

In Gates (1917), students who spent a higher percentage of their 9-minute study period in recitation recalled more nonsense syllables.

“Students who spent a higher percentage of their 9-minute study period in recitation recalled more nonsense syllables (panel a).”

• cites Gates 1917Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Covert (silent) retrieval practice is an effective learning tool.

“That is, covert (silent) retrieval practice is an effective learning tool (Putnam & Roediger 2013).”

• cites Putnam & Roediger 2013 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Rowland's (2014) meta-analysis found an overall robust testing effect (Hedge's g = 0.50) when comparing testing to restudying in laboratory studies.

“The overall testing effect was robust (Hedge's g = 0.50).”

• cites Rowland 2014 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

When we encode and then retrieve, the retrieval process results in the memory being solidified such that it remains more accessible over time.

“When we encode and then retrieve, the retrieval process results in the memory being solidified such that it remains more accessible over time (Bjork 1975).”

• cites Bjork 1975Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The three-store framework's view that encoding and retrieval are discrete stages overlooks the iterative and interactive processes underlying learning.

“This mindset overlooks the iterative and interactive processes underlying learning (Gardiner 2007).”

• cites Gardiner 2007Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Across these studies, there are clear benefits of retrieval practice in a true classroom environment where learning unfolds over time and involves repeated exposure to the materials.

“Across these studies we can see clear benefits of retrieval practice in a true classroom environment, where learning unfolds over time and involves repeated exposure to the materials.”

The benefit of prior testing increases over time.

“Other studies, too, have suggested that the benefit of prior testing increases over time (Toppino & Cohen 2009), and this pattern can also be seen in a meta-analysis (Rowland 2014), which also demonstrates that a retrieval practice effect often does exist at shorter intervals.”

• Also stated in: § Retention Interval · hedged

  “Setting aside the issue of a crossover interaction, we can reconsider whether an ordinal interaction seems to occur such that the benefit of retrieval practice increases over time.The answer here appears to be yes (Rowland 2014).”

• cites Toppino & Cohen 2009 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Rowland 2014 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Overall, the effect of multiple-choice testing seems to be positive.

“In short, the overall effect seems to be positive, but some caution is warranted when multiple-choice tests do not include correct-answer feedback.”

When correct-answer feedback occurs at the time of the initial test, there is some evidence that short-answer tests are better than multiple-choice tests, regardless of whether the final test is in the same short-answer format or is a multiple-choice test.

“When correct-answer feedback occurs at the time of the initial test, there is some evidence that short-answer tests are better, regardless of whether the final test is in the same short-answer format or is a multiple-choice test (Kang et al. 2007).”

• cites Kang et al. 2007 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The specific details of the quizzing situation are not as important as the fact that quizzing occurred.

“The specific details of the quizzing situation are not as important as the fact that quizzing occurred.”

In that SAT II study, the prior multiple-choice test also enhanced the likelihood of incorrect answers on the final short-answer test.

“In a study in which students answered questions from SAT II tests (on biology, chemistry, history), the overall effect of the multiple-choice test was beneficial (i.e., a testing effect occurred); nonetheless, the prior multiple-choice test also enhanced the likelihood of incorrect answers on the final shortanswer test (Marsh et al. 2009).”

• cites Marsh et al. 2009 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Even when a testing effect cannot be seen in overall recognition performance, there is evidence of the testing effect in the recollection component of recognition.

“It appears, though, that even when a testing effect cannot be seen in overall recognition performance, if one breaks down the components of recognition into recollection and familiarity (using methods developed under the dual process framework; see Yonelinas 2002), there is evidence of the testing effect in the recollection component (Chan & McDermott 2007).”

• cites Chan & McDermott 2007 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Yonelinas 2002 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Students may select wrong options on a multiple-choice test and learn those incorrect answers.

“Students may select the wrong options and learn those incorrect answers.”

Most middle school (N = 1,302) and high school (N = 102) students reported that quizzing did not make them more nervous for the unit test.

“As can be seen in Figure 5e, f, most middle school (N = 1,302) and high school (N = 102) students agreed: Quizzing did not make them any more nervous for the unit test.”

• cites Agarwal et al. 2014 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

In terms of overall performance increases, recall tests, especially free recall tests, exhibit more reliable, robust benefits.

“In terms of overall performance increases, though, recall tests (especially free recall tests) exhibit more reliable, robust benefits (Rowland 2014).”

• cites Rowland 2014 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

A retrieval practice effect often exists at shorter intervals.

“Other studies, too, have suggested that the benefit of prior testing increases over time (Toppino & Cohen 2009), and this pattern can also be seen in a meta-analysis (Rowland 2014), which also demonstrates that a retrieval practice effect often does exist at shorter intervals.”

• cites Rowland 2014 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

In a study using SAT II questions on biology, chemistry, and history, the overall effect of the multiple-choice test was beneficial, i.e., a testing effect occurred.

“In a study in which students answered questions from SAT II tests (on biology, chemistry, history), the overall effect of the multiple-choice test was beneficial (i.e., a testing effect occurred); nonetheless, the prior multiple-choice test also enhanced the likelihood of incorrect answers on the final shortanswer test (Marsh et al. 2009).”

• cites Marsh et al. 2009 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The confound in number of exposures masks the advantage that is present for the items that are successfully retrieved.

“As a result, the confound in number of exposures masks the advantage that is present for the items that are successfully retrieved (see also Karpicke 2017).”

• cites Karpicke 2017 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Difference scores are inherently poor in reliability.

“One complication is that the testing effect is a difference score between a condition that receives retrieval practice and one that does not, and difference scores are inherently poor in reliability (Draheim et al. 2019).”

• cites Draheim et al. 2019 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

After taking an initial multiple-choice test, students tend to produce the incorrect answers they had previously chosen when later given a short-answer test.

“After taking an initial multiple-choice test, students tend to produce the incorrect answers they had previously chosen when later given a short-answer test (Marsh et al. 2009, Roediger & Marsh 2005).”

• cites Marsh et al. 2009 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Roediger & Marsh 2005Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Retention interval is a contributor to whether a testing effect will occur.

“The data in Figure 4 suggest that retention interval is a contributor to whether a testing effect will occur.”

In Roediger & Karpicke's (2006a) experiment, repeated study was more effective than prior testing when the retention interval preceding the final criterial test was short.

“Specifically, in Roediger & Karpicke's (2006a) experiment, repeated study was more effective than prior testing when the retention interval preceding the final criterial test was short (see also Thompson et al. 1978).”

• cites Roediger & Karpicke 2006aNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Thompson et al. 1978 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

When a learner encounters a multiple-choice test, they see incorrect answers, which might lead to confusion at a later time, especially if no immediate feedback is given.

“Specifically, when a learner encounters a multiple-choice test, they see incorrect answers, which might lead to confusion at a later time (especially if no immediate feedback is given) (Roediger et al. 2011b).”

• cites Roediger et al. 2011bNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Most students reported decreased test anxiety after having worked with the materials on the quizzes.

“Indeed, most students reported decreased test anxiety after having worked with the materials on the quizzes.”

• cites Agarwal et al. 2014 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

When performance on the initial test is low, there is an unfair advantage for the restudy condition because 100% of the items are restudied but only a small fraction of the items are successfully recalled on the initial test.

“They suggest that when performance on the initial test is low, there is an unfair advantage for the restudy condition, such that 100% of the items are restudied but only a small fraction of the items are successfully recalled on the initial test.”

• cites Rowland & DeLosh 2015 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

A crossover interaction occurs whereby repeated study shows superior benefits early on but is surpassed by repeated testing after a delay.

“I suggest that the crossover interaction whereby repeated study shows superior benefits early on but is surpassed by repeated testing after a delay has been one of the aspects of the testing effect that has led investigators to find it a compelling topic of research.”

• Also stated in: § Retention Interval · boosted

  “This interaction was shown in two separate experiments by Roediger & Karpicke (2006a) (see Figure 4), and much has been made of this marked change in the patterns of performance.”

• cites Roediger & Karpicke 2006aNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

In an online Brain & Behavior course, quizzing with feedback enhanced exam performance for that material relative to nonquizzed materials.

“When quizzing (with feedback) was incorporated, exam performance was enhanced for that material (relative to the nonquizzed materials), and this benefit accrued even when the type of question changed from the quiz to the exam (cf.Foss & Pirozzolo 2017).”

• cites Thomas et al. 2018 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The level of success on the initial retrieval attempt is important in determining whether an advantage of retrieval practice will appear at short intervals.

“Rowland & DeLosh (2015), however, demonstrate that the level of success on the initial retrieval attempt is important in in determining whether an advantage of retrieval practice will appear at short intervals.”

• cites Rowland & DeLosh 2015 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The benefit of quizzing accrued even when the type of question changed from the quiz to the exam.

“When quizzing (with feedback) was incorporated, exam performance was enhanced for that material (relative to the nonquizzed materials), and this benefit accrued even when the type of question changed from the quiz to the exam (cf.Foss & Pirozzolo 2017).”

• cites Thomas et al. 2018 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Foss & Pirozzolo 2017 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The studies demonstrate real-world benefits of retrieval practice for learning.

“Regardless of the mechanism, the studies demonstrate real-world benefits of retrieval practice for learning.”

Some studies have demonstrated testing effects using classroom materials or using experimenter-created materials in a simulated classroom setting.

“Some studies have demonstrated testing effects using classroom materials (e.g., Carpenter et al. 2009) or using experimenter-created materials in a simulated classroom setting (Butler & Roediger 2007, Duchastel & Nungester 1982); to date, however, very few studies have attempted to address whether introduction of in-class quizzing can improve actual course grades.”

• cites Carpenter et al. 2009 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Butler & Roediger 2007 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Duchastel & Nungester 1982 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Even if the final criterial test was to create a concept map with no external cues provided, having done retrieval practice earlier led to better performance than having created a concept map.

“A second experiment demonstrated that even if the final criterial test was to create a concept map (with no external cues provided), having done retrieval practice earlier led to better performance than having created a concept map.”

• cites Karpicke & Blunt 2011 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The benefit obtained from an initial test is robust enough that all 57% of the items that were initially tested are above the recall threshold at both short and long delays.

“Further, the benefit obtained from that initial test is robust enough that all 57% of the items that were initially tested are above the recall threshold at both the short and long delays.”

Simply reading the target facts did not produce facilitation (49% recall).

“Simply reading the target facts did not produce facilitation, however (49% recall).”

• cites Chan et al. 2006 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Retrieval-induced forgetting tends to be short-lived.

“Specifically, Chan noted that retrieval-induced forgetting tends to be short-lived (MacLeod & Macrae 2001) and can be eliminated if participants are asked to integrate the materials (Anderson & McCulloch 1999).”

• cites MacLeod & Macrae 2001 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Chan et al. (2006) provided follow-up evidence that the initial quizzes led students to retrieve not only the specific answer to the question but also related information, which then received a benefit.

“Chan et al. (2006) provided follow-up evidence that the initial quizzes led students to retrieve not only the specific answer to the question but also related information, which then received a benefit.”

• cites Chan et al. 2006 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The conceptualization can accommodate the finding that initial tests can appear to immunize against forgetting.

“This conceptualization can accommodate the finding that initial tests can appear to immunize against forgetting (e.g., see Figure 2a).”

In the bifurcation model, after a person studies a set of items, there will be variability in the resulting memory strength of those items.

“After a person studies a set of items, there will be variability in the resulting memory strength of those items (see Figure 7a,b).”

• cites Kornell et al. 2011 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: After a person studies a set of items, there is variability in the resulting memory strength of those items.

The finding of retrieval-induced facilitation at long retention intervals was replicated using textbook materials that encourage integration.

“The finding of retrieval-induced facilitation at long retention intervals was replicated using textbook materials that encourage integration (Chan 2010) (see Figure 6).”

• cites Chan 2010Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Retrieval-induced forgetting can be eliminated if participants are asked to integrate the materials.

“Specifically, Chan noted that retrieval-induced forgetting tends to be short-lived (MacLeod & Macrae 2001) and can be eliminated if participants are asked to integrate the materials (Anderson & McCulloch 1999).”

• cites Anderson & McCulloch 1999 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The effect sizes giving rise to the elaborative retrieval hypothesis were not very robust.

“The effect sizes giving rise to this hypothesis were not very robust (see Carpenter 2009, figure 1), and attempts to directly test the hypothesis have not revealed support for the generality of the framework (e.g., Karpicke & Blunt 2011).”

• cites Carpenter 2009 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Bjork et al. (2014) demonstrated that the benefits extended not just to the actual information tested but also to related information.

“Bjork et al. (2014) demonstrated that the benefits extended not just to the actual information tested but also to related information.”

• cites Bjork et al. 2014 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The framework accommodates the phenomenon whereby restudy shows superior benefits compared to testing after a short retention interval but the reverse is true after a longer delay.

“Further, this framework also accommodates the phenomenon whereby restudy shows superior benefits compared to testing after a short retention interval but the reverse is true after a longer delay (see, e.g., Figure 4).”

For participants who restudy items, the distribution of memory strengths shifts to the right.

“For participants who then restudy the items, the resulting memory strengths will tend to increase such that the distribution of memory strengths will be shifted to the right (Figure 7c).”

• cites Kornell et al. 2011 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Retrieval practice benefits can spread to related, nontested information in some circumstances.

“But might retrieval practice benefits spread to related, nontested information?The answer is-in some circumstancesyes.”

Similar benefits of in-class quizzes in college classes have been seen in a Psychology Research Methods class, an Introductory Psychology class, and a Statistics for Psychology class at large state universities.

“Similar benefits of in-class quizzes in college classes have been seen in a Psychology Research Methods class (Bjork et al. 2014), in an Introductory Psychology class (Batsell et al. 2017), and in a Statistics for Psychology class (Lyle & Crawford 2011), all of them at large state universities.”

• cites Bjork et al. 2014 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Batsell et al. 2017 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Lyle & Crawford 2011 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

In Chan et al. (2006), a day later, retrieval for target facts related to the tested facts but not tested themselves was 9% greater than retrieval for nontested facts unrelated to the tested facts (59% vs 50% recall).

“A day later, retrieval for target facts related to the tested facts, but not tested themselves, was 9% greater than retrieval for nontested facts that were unrelated to the tested facts (59% and 50% recall, respectively).”

• cites Chan et al. 2006 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Attempts to directly test the elaborative retrieval hypothesis have not revealed support for the generality of the framework.

“The effect sizes giving rise to this hypothesis were not very robust (see Carpenter 2009, figure 1), and attempts to directly test the hypothesis have not revealed support for the generality of the framework (e.g., Karpicke & Blunt 2011).”

• cites Karpicke & Blunt 2011 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Items retrieved on an initial test exhibit high memory strengths that surpass the recallability threshold, despite some forgetting relative to the initial test period.

“Those items that were retrieved on the initial test exhibit high memory strengths that surpass the recallability threshold (despite some forgetting taking place relative to the initial test period).”

The benefits of retrieval practice are sometimes not apparent at short delays but are readily observed after longer delays.

“A key observation that this conceptualization can accommodate is the finding that the benefits of retrieval practice are sometimes not apparent at short delays but are readily observed after longer delays.”

Even when the optimal retrieval difficulty is accomplished on average, it does not necessarily apply well to learners toward the top or bottom of the distribution.

“even when that goal is accomplished on average (i.e., for most items for average learners), it does not necessarily apply well to learners toward the top or bottom of the distribution for whom those items might be too easy or too difficult, respectively.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: For a learner to benefit from retrieval practice, the retrieval effort should be difficult but not so difficult that the retrieval attempt fails.