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Is the startle reaction an emotion
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“Our findings extend these results using disgust films, a stimulus that is more clearly emotional than the acoustic startle, which is thought to exist on the boundary between emotion and reflex (Ekman, Friesen, & Simons, 1985).”
From Cardiovascular costs of emotion suppression cross ethnic lines. (2008) · cites this paper as Ekman, Friesen, & Simons, 1985
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Steinhaeusser, S. C., Eckstein, B., & Lugrin, B. (2022) · Entertainment Computing · doi:10.1016/j.entcom.2022.100539 · Cited by 11
A Review of Automatic Lie Detection from Facial Features
Delmas, H., Denault, V., Burgoon, J. K., & Dunbar, N. E. (2024) · Journal of Nonverbal Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10919-024-00451-2 · Cited by 14
“This is, for example, the case for the lip stretcher which was measured through four measures in four different studies: latency, intensity, duration and frequency (Craig et al., 1991; Ekman et al., 1985; Galin & Thorn, 1993; Hadjistavropoulos & Craig, 1994).”
Continuous Capsule Network Method for Improving Electroencephalogram-Based Emotion Recognition
Wirawan, I. M. A., Wardoyo, R., Lelono, D., & Kusrohmaniah, S. (2022) · Emerging Science Journal · doi:10.28991/esj-2023-07-01-09 · Cited by 13
“External emotional reactions are usually hidden by individuals in social environments [7, 8].”
Implicit Sensitivity to Disgust-inducing Stimuli in Self-neglect FTD Patients
Bedoin, N., Thomas-Antérion, C., Dorey, J., & Lebert, F. (2009) · Cognitive and Behavioral Neurology · doi:10.1097/wnn.0b013e3181b7f26a · Cited by 11
“It is usually followed by a selfconscious response as the subject becomes aware that his/ her exaggerated reaction is often socially inappropriate.(31) This secondary self-conscious emotional behavior is disrupted in FTD, whereas the more primitive startle response remains intact(30) maybe because it is subtended by r…”
BackgroundDuchevet, A., Imbert, J.-P., Garcia, J., Lamirault, B., & Causse, M. (2025) · Human Factors The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society · doi:10.1177/00187208251342100 · Cited by 10
“Facial expressions associated with startle were analyzed by observing eye closure, horizontal lip stretch, and head and trunk movements (Ekman & Friesen, 1978; Ekman et al., 1985).”
Effects of a startle on heart rate in patients with multiple system atrophy
Valls‐Solé, J., Heras, M. V. D. L., León, L., & Valldeoriola, F. (2002) · Movement Disorders · doi:10.1002/mds.10093 · Cited by 10
Dexamphetamine effects on prepulse inhibition (PPI) and startle in healthy volunteers
Chitty, K., Albrecht, M., Graham, K. T., Kerr, C., Lee, J. W. Y., Iyyalol, R., & Martin-Iverson, M. (2014) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-013-3395-z · Cited by 12
An In-Depth Examination of Mental Incapacitation and Startle Reflex: A Flight Simulator Study
Deniel, J., Dupuy, M., Duchevet, A., Matton, N., Imbert, J.-P., & Causse, M. (2023) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-35389-5_4 · Cited by 9
Mota‐Rojas, D., Lezama-García, K., Domínguez-Oliva, A., Olmos-Hernández, A. S., Verduzco-Mendoza, A., Casas-Alvarado, A., Torres-Bernal, F., & Martı́nez-Burnes, J. (2023) · Journal of Animal Behaviour and Biometeorology · doi:10.31893/jabb.23ss01 · Cited by 9
“…that facial expressions have a protective function, such as squinting of the eyes to protect the organ when exposed to intense luminous stimuli in humans, as a result of the contraction of orbital muscles to close the eyes (Landis and Hunt 1939; Ekman et al 1985; Susskind and Anderson 2008).”
BackgroundFuss, F. K. (2016) · Applied Mathematics · doi:10.4236/am.2016.74033 · Cited by 9
“For example a startle reaction induced acoustically generates a movement reflex action and is therefore not considered an emotion per se [8].”
BackgroundAn Examination of Surprise and Emotions in the Processing of Anecdotal Evidence
Peng, W., & Huang, Q. E. (2019) · Health Communication · doi:10.1080/10410236.2019.1587813 · Cited by 9
Portnova, G. V. (2020) · Frontiers in Neurology · doi:10.3389/fneur.2020.00122 · Cited by 9
“Some previous studies have reported that a higher emotional response is associated with a higher FD (45, 46).”
BackgroundChun, J. (2024) · Frontiers in Computer Science · doi:10.3389/fcomp.2024.1444549 · Cited by 9
“…taxonomies classify emotions into distinct categories like Ekman’s six fundamental emotions: joy, surprise, sadness, fear, disgust, and anger (Ekman et al., 1985) or Plutchik’s wheel of 8 primary bipolar emotions (joy versus sadness; anger versus fear; trust versus disgust; and surprise…”
4 The Importance of Being Emotional
Robinson, J. M. (2005) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/0199263655.003.0004 · Cited by 8
On Emotions as Judgments (1988)
Solomon, R. C. (2003) · doi:10.1093/0195145496.003.0007 · Cited by 8
Facial reactions in preschoolers: A descriptive study
Unzner, L., & Schneider, K. (1990) · Journal of Nonverbal Behavior · doi:10.1007/bf01006577 · Cited by 7
“when analyzing startle reactions, as in Ekman, Friesen & Simons, 1985 ).”
MethodSchwartz, F., Deniel, J., & Causse, M. (2025) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-025-90540-z · Cited by 6
“Facial expressions associated with startle were analyzed by observing eye closure, horizontal lip stretch, and head and trunk movements 46,47 .”
Cognitive incapacitation in aviation: a narrative review
Causse, M., Deniel, J., Schwartz, F., Duchevet, A., Matton, N., Imbert, J.-P., & Cegarra, J. (2025) · Theoretical Issues in Ergonomics Science · doi:10.1080/1463922x.2025.2475431 · Cited by 6
“The startle response, less frequent in the cockpit, is a reflex characterized by an extremely rapid and stereotyped defensive response involving eye blinking, neck retraction and shoulder raising (Ekman, Friesen, and Simons 1985).”
“When Every Noise Appalls Me”: Sound and Fear inMacbethand Akira Kurosawa'sThrone of Blood
Tribble, E. B. (2005) · Shakespeare · doi:10.1080/17450910500135743 · Cited by 5
A difficult introduction to affective social learning
Clément, F., & Dukes, D. (2019) · Foundations of Affective Social Learning · doi:10.1017/9781108661362.001 · Cited by 3
Hebrew stance-taking gasps: From bodily response to social communicative resource
Ben-Moshe, Y. M. (2023) · Language & Communication · doi:10.1016/j.langcom.2022.12.006 · Cited by 5
Classifying Emotions: Prospects for a Psychoevolutionary Approach
Starkey, C. (2008) · Philosophical Psychology · doi:10.1080/09515080802513300 · Cited by 6
En defensa de una aproximación a los conceptos emocionales desde la perspectiva de los prototipos
Russell, J. A. (1992) · International Journal of Social Psychology Revista de Psicología Social · doi:10.1080/02134748.1992.10821656 · Cited by 4
Human Resource Management and Corporate Competitiveness
(2012) · Szent István University Publishing House eBooks · doi:10.18515/dbem.m2012.n02 · Cited by 4
Solomon, R. C. (2003) · doi:10.1093/0195145496.003.0001 · Cited by 4
The Methods of Negative Emotions Managing Based on the Teachers’ Control Group Research
Pawłowska, B., & Chomczyński, P. A. (2012) · Kultura i Edukacja · doi:10.15804/kie.2012.06.11 · Cited by 4
“Oh Shit!” Moments: Motorcycling, “Thrownness,” and the Startle Effect
Owton, H. (2022) · Culture Studies ↔ Critical Methodologies · doi:10.1177/15327086221093952 · Cited by 4
“In this way, surprise as a feeling can be positive or negative and tends to vary with the importance of the outcome as well as the beliefs about the outcome (Ekman et al., 1985).”
Incorporating Consciousness into an Understanding of Emotion and Nonverbal Behavior
Matsumoto, D., & Wilson, M. (2023) · Emotion Review · doi:10.1177/17540739231163177 · Cited by 4
“Support for this position comes from several sources, one of which is studies examining startle reactions (Ekman et al., 1985, 1997).”
BackgroundRemote identification of psychophysiological parameters for a cognitive-emotional conflict
Vartanov, A. V., Neroznikova, Y. M., Izbasarova, S. A., Михайлович, А. И., Artamonova, Y. N., & Vartanova, I. I. (2021) · Cognitive Systems Research · doi:10.1016/j.cogsys.2021.10.006 · Cited by 4
Robinson, J. M. (2005) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/0199263655.003.0003 · Cited by 3
Work Hard, Scare Hard? An Investigation of How Mental Workload Impacts Jump Scare Intensity
Terkildsen, T. S., Engelst, L., & Clasen, M. (2023) · Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1145/3611021 · Cited by 3
“…components, including rapid raising of the shoulders to protect the neck from attack, rapid eye-blink to protect the eyes, a specific pattern of facial muscular contraction, and upregulation of the sympathetic nervous system causing increased eccrine gland sweat production [30, 48, 72, 73].”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialSmile and Lie? Why We Are Able to Distinguish False Smiles from Genuine Ones
Weker, M.-M. (2016) · Issues in science and religion: publications of the European Society for the Study of Science and Theology · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-26769-2_5 · Cited by 3
AROUSAL GRADIENT AND PERFORMANCE
Stankard, W. (1990) · Perceptual and Motor Skills · doi:10.2466/pms.1990.71.3.935 · Cited by 3
9 A New Romantic Theory of Expression
Robinson, J. M. (2005) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/0199263655.003.0009 · Cited by 1
Skog, E., Qian, C. S., Parmar, A., & Schofield, A. J. (2023) · Vision Research · doi:10.1016/j.visres.2023.108275 · Cited by 2
Lempp, F., & Testa, M. (2022) · International Journal of Conflict Management · doi:10.1108/ijcma-02-2022-0039 · Cited by 2
Three methodologies for measuring the acoustic startle response in early infancy
Agnoli, S., Franchin, L., & Dondi, M. (2011) · Developmental Psychobiology · doi:10.1002/dev.20528 · Cited by 2
10 Emotional Expression in Music
Robinson, J. M. (2005) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/0199263655.003.0010 · Cited by 2
Portnova, G. V., Maslennikova, A. V., & Proskurnina, E. V. (2020) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci10100755 · Cited by 2
“For example, higher FD was associated with higher emotional reactivity [19,20] or emotional arousal [21,22] during emotional stress, and such a correlation was also found in sleep-deprived subjects during car driving [23].”
BackgroundPawłowska, B. (2013) · Przegląd Socjologii Jakościowej · doi:10.18778/1733-8069.9.2.06 · Cited by 2
Test of an Alternative Explanation for Effects of Arousal Gradient on Cognitive Performance
Stankard, W. (2004) · Perceptual and Motor Skills · doi:10.2466/pms.98.3.992-998 · Cited by 2
Emotions' Mysterious Objects (1984)
Solomon, R. C. (2003) · doi:10.1093/0195145496.003.0005 · Cited by 2
Parkinson, B. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108696234.006 · Cited by 1
(Re)Considering the jump scare in four elements
Acosta, E. A. M., & Sears, D. R. W. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1569394 · Cited by 1
“From this point of view, basic emotions like happiness and fear are physiologically and functionally distinct, metabolically costly, and typically infrequent ( ∼ 1–2 times per day; Ekman et al., 1985; Koneˇcni, 2008).”
Distinguishing Startle from Surprise Events Based on Physiological Signals
Sharma, M., Duchevet, A., Daiber, F., Imbert, J.-P., & Rekrut, M. (2025) · IEEE International Conference on Metrology for eXtended Reality, Artificial Intelligence and Neural Engineering (MetroXRAINE) · doi:10.1109/metroxraine66377.2025.11340378 · Cited by 1
“A startle event triggers a rapid reaction, as quick as 53 ms for behaviors like eye closure [11].”
Is startle a lateralised response in early infancy?
Franchin, L., Agnoli, S., & Dondi, M. (2013) · Laterality Asymmetries of Body Brain and Cognition · doi:10.1080/1357650x.2012.704038 · Cited by 1
“…according to Baby FACS guidelines, Brow Knitting (AU3) was analysed.1 The Action Units 20 (Lip Stretcher) and 21 (Neck Tightener), identified by Ekman et al. (1985) as actions involved in the facial component of the startle response, were not analysed because (in line with Oster, 2009) these…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialTwo stimuli are better than one: Combination rules for prepulse inhibition revisited
Krauter, E. E., Avery, B. C., & Avery, M. C. (2007) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.2007.00549.x · Cited by 1
Kürvers, R. (2014) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-658-00879-6_17 · Cited by 1
Wu, H.-Y. (2024) · Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/2024_jslhr-23-00288 · Cited by 1
“For instance, individuals may experience emotions such as fear and guilt when deceiving others, leading to speech with elevated F 0 levels (Ekman, 2009; Ekman et al., 1985).”
Worker Reason, Imagination and Emotion(s) in Change
Talat, U. (2016) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-47693-3_2 · Cited by 1
Jayasinghe, U., & Atukorale, A. S. (2019) · the Proceedings of the World Conference on Future of Education · doi:10.33422/wcfeducation.2019.09.516 · Cited by 1
Parkinson, B. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108696234.002 · Cited by 1
Bowen, G. P., & Ison, J. R. (2005) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2005.10.018 · Cited by 1
Robinson, J. M. (2005) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/0199263655.003.0002 · Cited by 1
The Rationality of the Emotions (1977)
Solomon, R. C. (2003) · doi:10.1093/0195145496.003.0003 · Cited by 1
On the Passivity of the Passions (2001)
Solomon, R. C. (2003) · doi:10.1093/0195145496.003.0012 · Cited by 1
Back to Basics: On the Very Idea of “Basic Emotions” (1993, Rev. 2001)
Solomon, R. C. (2003) · doi:10.1093/0195145496.003.0008 · Cited by 1
Emotion Recognition Ability in Older Adults
Dimelow, N. A. (2019) · Sheffield Hallam University · doi:10.7190/shu-thesis-00199 · Cited by 1
Pain reactivity and illness behaviour in kindergarten-aged children
Rocha, E. (1999) · doi:10.24124/1999/bpgub76 · Cited by 1
Grenzenlose Erlebniskommunikation durch Humor- und Surprise-Advertising
Martin, I. (2011) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-21133-1_18
Stankard, W. (2006) · Perceptual and Motor Skills · doi:10.2466/pms.103.3.779-788
Calma, H. B. (2013) · Psychology and Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.11648/j.pbs.20130204.11
“A number of researchers have examined aspect aspects like social [31], personality [34], emotional [9] cultural [15; 31] and even anthropological [31; 27] features of the individual exhibiting the traits of startle matching syndrome, but no research emerged to study their cognitive aspect.”
BackgroundRobinson, J. M. (2005) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/0199263655.003.0008
Robinson, J. M. (2005) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/0199263655.003.0013
Eschleman, K. J., & Bowling, N. A. (2010) · Research in occupational stress and well being · doi:10.1108/s1479-3555(2010)0000008008
Solomon, R. C. (2003) · doi:10.1093/0195145496.003.0004
7 Formal Devices as Coping Mechanisms
Robinson, J. M. (2005) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/0199263655.003.0007
The Politics of Emotion (1998)
Solomon, R. C. (2003) · doi:10.1093/0195145496.003.0009
Robinson, J. M. (2005) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/0199263655.003.0005
11 The Expression of Emotion in Instrumental Music
Robinson, J. M. (2005) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/0199263655.003.0011
12 Listening with Emotion: How Our Emotions Help Us to Understand Music
Robinson, J. M. (2005) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/0199263655.003.0012
Integrierte Unternehmenskommunikation im Krankenhaus
Baller, G., & Schaller, B. (2016) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-55326-4_12
Parkinson, B. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108696234.007
Lanigan, B. (2020) · ISU Red - Research and eData (Illinois State University) · doi:10.30707/etd2020.1606247535.291018aw
Facial Activity and Emotion Expression
Parkinson, B. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108696234.003
Parkinson, B. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108696234.008
What’s at the Heart of Emotions?
Parkinson, B. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108696234.001
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Explaining Emotional Influence
Parkinson, B. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108696234.004
Parkinson, B. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108696234.011
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Parkinson, B. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108696234.010
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Understanding the neural basis of deception versus truth-telling
Leow, D. W. Y. (2021) · doi:10.32657/10356/161752
Video-Based Deception Detection and Financial FraudPreprint
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Metadata
- Authors
- Ekman, P., Friesen, W. V., & Simons, R. C.
- Venue
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
- Published
- 1985
- Volume
- 49
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 1416-1426
- ISSN
- 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1315
- OpenAlex
- W4230471314
- Cited by
- 202
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 5 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 9 · 2022: 9 · 2021: 7 · 2020: 6 · 2019: 20 · 2018: 2 · 2017: 2 · 2016: 6 · 2015: 3 · 2014: 5 · 2013: 6 · 2012: 5
- FWCI
- 1.66
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Emotions and Moral Behavior
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory and Neural Mechanisms
- Keywords
- startle response, emotions, emotional arousal, physiological responses
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