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Is the startle reaction an emotion
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“Our findings extend these results using disgust films, a stimulus that is more clearly emotional than the acoustic startle, which is thought to exist on the boundary between emotion and reflex (Ekman, Friesen, & Simons, 1985).”
From Cardiovascular costs of emotion suppression cross ethnic lines. (2008) · cites this paper as Ekman, Friesen, & Simons, 1985
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An argument for basic emotions
Ekman, P. (1992) · Cognition and Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699939208411068 · Cited by 9,646
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Unconscious facial reactions to emotional facial expressions
Dimberg, U., Thunberg, M., & Elmehed, K. (2000) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/1467-9280.00221 · Cited by 1,788
The Duchenne smile: Emotional expression and brain physiology: II.
Ekman, P., Davidson, R. J., & Friesen, W. V. (1990) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.58.2.342 · Cited by 1,371
“Ekman & Friesen, 1976; Ekman et al., 1980; Ekman, Friesen, & Simons, 1985; Ekman et al., 1988; Fox & Davidson, 1988; Krause et al., 1989; Ruch, 1987; Steiner, 1986).”
Self-citationBP4D-Spontaneous: a high-resolution spontaneous 3D dynamic facial expression database
Zhang, X., Yin, L., Cohn, J. F., Canavan, S., Reale, M., Horowitz, A., Liu, P., & Girard, J. M. (2014) · Image and Vision Computing · doi:10.1016/j.imavis.2014.06.002 · Cited by 745
“Following the previous work [16, 48–50], Table 11 shows amapping between AU(s) and the hypothetical emotion.”
ResultA new pan-cultural facial expression of emotion
Ekman, P., & Friesen, W. V. (1986) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1007/bf00992253 · Cited by 736
Self-citationThe place of appraisal in emotion
Frijda, N. H. (1993) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699939308409193 · Cited by 644
Robinson, J. M. (2005) · doi:10.1093/0199263655.001.0001 · Cited by 619
Surprise As an Interactional Achievement: Reaction Tokens in Conversation
Wilkinson, S., & Kitzinger, C. (2006) · Social Psychology Quarterly · doi:10.1177/019027250606900203 · Cited by 546
The relationship of emotion to cognition: A functional approach to a semantic controversy.
Leventhal, H., & Scherer, K. (1987) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699938708408361 · Cited by 832
The consistency of facial expressions of pain: a comparison across modalities
Prkachin, K. M. (1992) · Pain · doi:10.1016/0304-3959(92)90213-u · Cited by 553
“As noted by Prkachin and Mercer (19891, these conditions are likely to produce the confounded experience of startle which other research has found to produce blinking (Ekman et al. 1985).”
BackgroundSharp, C., & Fonagy, P. (2008) · Social Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9507.2007.00457.x · Cited by 480
A new three-dimensional model for emotions and monoamine neurotransmitters
Lövheim, H. (2011) · Medical Hypotheses · doi:10.1016/j.mehy.2011.11.016 · Cited by 396
Inducing word-of-mouth by eliciting surprise – a pilot investigation
Derbaix, C. M., & Vanhamme, J. (2002) · Journal of Economic Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0167-4870(02)00157-5 · Cited by 330
“In contrast, numerous researchers (e.g. Bain, 1874; Charlesworth, 1969; Desai, 1939; Ekman and Friesen 1975, 1985; Izard, 1977, 1991; Izard and Buechler, 1980; Plutchik, 1980; Ribot, 1911; Ruckmick, 1921; Warren, 1920; Woodworth et Schlosberg, 1954) and the bulk of recent studies carried out in…”
BackgroundCoherence between expressive and experiential systems in emotion
Rosenberg, E. L., & Ekman, P. (1994) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699939408408938 · Cited by 315
Self-citationDo Facial Movements Express Emotions or Communicate Motives?
Parkinson, B. (2005) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr0904_1 · Cited by 322
LEVENSON, R. W. (2011) · Emotion Review · doi:10.1177/1754073911410743 · Cited by 335
Evolution and facial action in reflex, social motive, and paralanguage
Fridlund, A. J. (1991) · Biological Psychology · doi:10.1016/0301-0511(91)90003-y · Cited by 289
Solomon, R. C. (2003) · doi:10.1093/0195145496.001.0001 · Cited by 415
A Psychometric Evaluation of the Facial Action Coding System for Assessing Spontaneous Expression
Sayette, M. A., Cohn, J. F., Wertz, J. M., Perrott, M. A., & Parrott, D. J. (2001) · Journal of Nonverbal Behavior · doi:10.1023/a:1010671109788 · Cited by 252
“When hypotheses entail very small differences in latency or the duration of response (e.g., Cohn & Elmore, 1996; Ekman et al., 1985), precision of measurement is a critical concern.”
BackgroundSoto, J. A., LEVENSON, R. W., & Ebling, R. (2005) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/1528-3542.5.2.154 · Cited by 240
Côté, S., Gyurak, A., & LEVENSON, R. W. (2010) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/a0021156 · Cited by 235
Executive functions and the down-regulation and up-regulation of emotion
Gyurak, A., Goodkind, M. S., Kramer, J. H., Miller, B. L., & Levenson, R. W. (2012) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931.2011.557291 · Cited by 192
“Controlling for responding on the watch trial enabled us to examine responding in the two regulation trials free of any individual differences in the magnitude of emotional responding (Ekman, Friesen, & Simons, 1985 ; Gyurak et al, 2009 ).”
MethodMatsumoto, D., & Willingham, B. (2006) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.91.3.568 · Cited by 195
Self-conscious emotion deficits in frontotemporal lobar degeneration
Sturm, V. E. (2006) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/awl145 · Cited by 174
“Although neurophysiologists often view the startle response as a reflex, detailed analysis of its timing, duration and behavioural displays reveal that it shares characteristics of emotions as well (Ekman et al., 1985).”
BackgroundInfluentialLessons From Pinocchio: Cues to Deception May Be Highly Exaggerated
Luke, T. J. (2019) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691619838258 · Cited by 174
Fearfulness and Startle Potentiation during Aversive Visual Stimuli
Cook, E. W., Davis, T. L., Hawk, L. W., Spence, E. L., & Gautier, C. H. (1992) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.1992.tb02038.x · Cited by 156
Cardiovascular costs of emotion suppression cross ethnic lines.
Roberts, N. A., Levenson, R. W., & Gross, J. J. (2008) · International Journal of Psychophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2008.06.003 · Cited by 157
“Our findings extend these results using disgust films, a stimulus that is more clearly emotional than the acoustic startle, which is thought to exist on the boundary between emotion and reflex (Ekman et al., 1985).”
ResultEvidence for strong dissociation between emotion and facial displays: The case of surprise.
Reisenzein, R., Bördgen, S., Holtbernd, T., & Matz, D. (2006) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.91.2.295 · Cited by 133
Prkachin, K. M., & Mercer, S. R. (1989) · Pain · doi:10.1016/0304-3959(89)90038-9 · Cited by 131
Animal Models of Post‐Traumatic Stress Disorder
Cohen, H., Matar, M. A., & Zohar, J. (2013) · Current Protocols in Neuroscience · doi:10.1002/0471142301.ns0945s64 · Cited by 128
“One of the most widely used stimuli is a series of repeated intense auditory signals eliciting an acoustic startle response (ASR; Landis and Hunt, 1939; Ekman et al., 1985).”
BackgroundEmpathy, emotional contagion, and rapid facial reactions to angry and happy facial expressions
Dimberg, U., & Thunberg, M. (2012) · PsyCh Journal · doi:10.1002/pchj.4 · Cited by 118
Gyurak, A., Goodkind, M. S., Madan, A., Kramer, J. H., Miller, B. L., & Levenson, R. W. (2009) · Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3758/cabn.9.2.144 · Cited by 113
“This condition was included to tap into spontaneous attempts to regulate emotions (Ekman et al., 1985) and was designed to mobilize the participants’ own choices of regulatory strategy.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialFacial expressions, smile types, and self-report during humour, tickle, and pain
Harris, C. R., & Alvarado, N. (2005) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699930441000472 · Cited by 111
Affective picture modulation: Valence, arousal, attention allocation and motivational significance
Leite, J., Carvalho, S., Galdo‐Álvarez, S., Alves, J., Sampaio, A., & Gonçalves, Ó. F. (2012) · International Journal of Psychophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2011.12.005 · Cited by 103
“It primarily consists of a stereotyped action pattern of somatic and facial muscles (Ekman et al., 1985), with the activation of both the autonomic and central nervous systems (Soto et al.”
BackgroundGreiveldinger, L., Veissier, I., & Boissy, A. (2007) · Physiology & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2007.05.012 · Cited by 99
Dealing With Unexpected Events on the Flight Deck: A Conceptual Model of Startle and Surprise
Landman, A., Groen, E. L., van Paassen, M. M., Bronkhorst, A. W., & Mulder, M. (2017) · Human Factors The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society · doi:10.1177/0018720817723428 · Cited by 98
“Although unexpectedness increases the response, anticipated stimuli were shown to be startling as well (Damasio, 1999; Ekman et al., 1985; Hagemann, Levenson, & Gross, 2006; Roberts et al., 2004).”
BackgroundComparative evaluation of 3D vs. 2D modality for automatic detection of facial action units
Savran, A., Sankur, B., & Taha Bilge, M. (2012) · Pattern Recognition · doi:10.1016/j.patcog.2011.07.022 · Cited by 111
Introduction to Human Affective Neuroscience
Armony, J. L., & Vuilleumier, P. O. (2013) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511843716.003 · Cited by 96
The Temporal Dynamics of Surprise
Noordewier, M. K., Topolinski, S., & van Dijk, E. (2016) · Social and Personality Psychology Compass · doi:10.1111/spc3.12242 · Cited by 96
Facial electromyographic reactions and autonomic activity to auditory stimuli
Dimberg, U. (1990) · Biological Psychology · doi:10.1016/0301-0511(90)90013-m · Cited by 83
Canadian, Greek, and Japanese freely produced emotion labels for facial expressions
Russell, J. A., Suzuki, N., & Ishida, N. (1993) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1007/bf00992324 · Cited by 73
“" Izard (1971) counted loosely related words as supportive ("correct"), whereas Ekman and Friesen (1988) argued that only "exact synonyms" or words that vary only in a dimension such as in tensity can establish the relation between a specific emotion and a specific facial expression.”
BackgroundContrastive Semantics and Cultural Psychology: 'Surprise' in Malay and English
Goddard, C. (1997) · Culture & Psychology · doi:10.1177/1354067x9700300204 · Cited by 67
Pain Reactivity and Somatization in Kindergarten-Age Children
Rocha, E. M. (2002) · Journal of Pediatric Psychology · doi:10.1093/jpepsy/28.1.47 · Cited by 66
“Both coders had demonstrated proficiency on the FACS final test ( Ekman & Friesen, 1978 ).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialExecuting Facial Control During Deception Situations
Hurley, C. M., & Frank, M. G. (2011) · Journal of Nonverbal Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10919-010-0102-1 · Cited by 70
“during startle (Ekman et al. 1985) and pain (Craig et al.”
BackgroundStress and Illness: A Role for Specific Emotions
LEVENSON, R. W. (2019) · Psychosomatic Medicine · doi:10.1097/psy.0000000000000736 · Cited by 68
Startle and Surprise on the Flight Deck
Rivera, J. A., Talone, A. B., Boesser, C. T., Jentsch, F. G., & Yeh, M. (2014) · Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting · doi:10.1177/1541931214581219 · Cited by 55
Getting Angry: The Jamesian Theory of Emotion in Anthropology (1984)
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Anatomically based measurement of facial expressions in simulated versus hypnotically induced affect
Weiss, F., Blum, G. S., & Gleberman, L. (1987) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1007/bf00992214 · Cited by 50
Roberts, N. A., Beer, J. S., Werner, K. H., Scabini, D., Levens, S. M., Knight, R. T., & LEVENSON, R. W. (2004) · Cognitive Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3758/cabn.4.3.307 · Cited by 50
Expressive suppression during an acoustic startle
Hagemann, T., Levenson, R. W., & Gross, J. J. (2006) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.2006.00382.x · Cited by 69
Meditation and the startle response: A case study.
LEVENSON, R. W., Ekman, P., & Ricard, M. (2012) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/a0027472 · Cited by 53
“This produces a gunshot-like sound (Ekman et al., 1985, used an actual gunshot), which is sufficiently loud to produce a strong defensive reaction.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialSelf-citationChapter 25 Laboratory testing of emotion and frontal cortex
LEVENSON, R. W., Ascher, E. A., Goodkind, M. S., McCarthy, M., Sturm, V. E., & Werner, K. H. (2008) · Handbook of clinical neurology · doi:10.1016/s0072-9752(07)88025-0 · Cited by 46
Howard, R. J., & Ford, R. (1992) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291700038137 · Cited by 45
Facial expression form and function
Susskind, J. M., & Anderson, A. K. (2008) · Communicative & Integrative Biology · doi:10.4161/cib.1.2.6999 · Cited by 44
Dissociating spontaneous and deliberate expressions of pain: signal detection analyses
Prkachin, K. M. (1992) · Pain · doi:10.1016/0304-3959(92)90009-z · Cited by 44
Independence of face identity and expression processing: exploring the role of motion
Lander, K., & Butcher, N. (2015) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00255 · Cited by 42
“Furthermore, dynamic aspects (e.g., speed of onset/offset) of facial movement are useful when distinguishing genuine from posed expressions (Hess and Kleck, 1990) and often differences between expressions are reflected in their temporal dynamic properties (Ekman et al., 1985).”
BackgroundPerception of non-verbal emotional listener feedback
Schröder, M., Heylen, D., & Poggi, I. (2006) · Speech prosody · doi:10.21437/speechprosody.2006-204 · Cited by 44
“Startle could be ruled out in that it seems to be a reflex and not an emotion [8], more likely to be caused by a sudden noise than by reasoning on an interlocutor’s sentence.”
Scholes‐Balog, K. E., & Martin-Iverson, M. T. (2009) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.2009.00927.x · Cited by 40
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“Since the range of “neutral” class is difficult to define, and in order to use the same class set as the other studies, we chose six basic emotions proposed by Ekmen [56].”
To Surprise or Not to Surprise Your Customers: The Use of Surprise as a Marketing Tool
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Speech Emotion Recognition Using CNN-LSTM and Vision Transformer
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LEVENSON, R. W., & Miller, B. L. (2007) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8721.2007.00523.x · Cited by 35
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Does Parkinson's disease lead to alterations in the facial expression of pain?
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“Mouth opening is, for example, a typical element of the facial expression of surprise (rather positive) [14], which not necessarily demands immediate action.”
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“Thus, the startle effect can occur without surprise, for example when the situation is anticipated, an individual is warned of the occurrence of a loud noise that does not prevent him from having a startle response (Ekman et al., 1985).”
BackgroundPortnova, G. V., & Atanov, M. S. (2018) · AIMS neuroscience · doi:10.3934/neuroscience.2018.4.221 · Cited by 29
“Some previous studies have reported that higher emotional response is associated with higher FD [33]; the “acute” or sudden emotions can also be determined using FD [34]; furthermore, FD was found to be useful to detect the level of arousal [35].”
BackgroundVanhamme, J., & Lindgreen, A. (2001) · Psychology and Marketing · doi:10.1002/mar.1030 · Cited by 28
Automatic Detection of Verbal Deception
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“Emotions arising as action tendencies are determined by the individual appraisal of a situation (Plutchik, 1982; Ekman et al., 1985; Ellsworth and Smith, 1988).”
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“However, the external emotional expression is usually deliberately hidden in the social environment, which makes the recognition not optimal [13–15].”
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Against Valence (“Positive” and “Negative” Emotions) (2001)
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Distinct temporal features of genuine and deliberate facial expressions of surprise
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Sex Recognition from Faces Using Neural Networks
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“(Ekman and Friesen have identified six "universal" expressions of emotion which occur cross-culturally (Ekman 1973a; Ekman 1973b; Ekman 1977; Ekman 1989; Ekman, & Friesen 1969; Ekman, Friesen, & Sirnons 1985 ) and have distinctive autonomic nervous system signatures (Ekman, Levenson, & Friesen 1983; Schwartz, Weinberg…”
BackgroundRobinson, J. M. (2005) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/0199263655.003.0001 · Cited by 20
Acoustic Startles in Horror Films
Sbravatti, V. (2019) · Projections · doi:10.3167/proj.2019.130104 · Cited by 18
Aranguren, M., & Tonnelat, S. (2014) · Journal of Nonverbal Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10919-014-0193-1 · Cited by 18
“particular eye closure, is indeed present in the startle response (Ekman et al. 1985).”
BackgroundInfluentialAre LeDoux’s survival circuits basic emotions under a different name?
Scarantino, A. (2018) · Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.cobeha.2018.06.001 · Cited by 21
“He is clear that they are not reflexes, in part because he takes reflexes to be easy to elicit and reliably shown, whereas basic emotions are elicited by appraisals that differ from person to person [18].”
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Quinn, R. W., Myers, C. G., Kopelman, S., & Simmons, S. (2020) · Academy of Management Discoveries · doi:10.5465/amd.2018.0217 · Cited by 19
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“Heart rate and blink reflexes have been associated with startle, surprise and arousal [4,9] – states that are induced by unexpected events.”
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“Depending on the trigger, surprise can either be a positive or a negative emotion (Ekman et al., 1985).”
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On Physiology and Feelings (1976)
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Decoding of facial expressions of pain in avatars: does sex matter?
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“to a greater degree with signs of startle than with pain [17].”
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Patient, Procedure, People (PPP): recognising and responding to intraoperative critical events
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Application of a multilevel model of behavioural control to understanding emotion
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Orolaryngeal Reflex Responses to Changes in Affective State
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Metadata
- Authors
- Ekman, P., Friesen, W. V., & Simons, R. C.
- Venue
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
- Published
- 1985
- Volume
- 49
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 1416-1426
- ISSN
- 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1315
- OpenAlex
- W4230471314
- Cited by
- 202
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 5 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 9 · 2022: 9 · 2021: 7 · 2020: 6 · 2019: 20 · 2018: 2 · 2017: 2 · 2016: 6 · 2015: 3 · 2014: 5 · 2013: 6 · 2012: 5
- FWCI
- 1.66
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Emotions and Moral Behavior
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory and Neural Mechanisms
- Keywords
- startle response, emotions, emotional arousal, physiological responses
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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