The DOI matches its Crossref record; 293 of the 297 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Implicit social cognition: Attitudes, self-esteem, and stereotypes
Abstract
Social behavior is ordinarily treated as being under conscious (if not always thoughtful) control. However, considerable evidence now supports the view that social behavior often operates in an implicit or unconscious fashion. The identifying feature of implicit cognition is that past experience influences judgment in a fashion not introspectively known by the actor. The present conclusion--that attitudes, self-esteem, and stereotypes have important implicit modes of operation--extends both the construct validity and predictive usefulness of these major theoretical constructs of social psychology. Methodologically, this review calls for increased use of indirect measures--which are imperative in studies of implicit cognition. The theorized ordinariness of implicit stereotyping is consistent with recent findings of discrimination by people who explicitly disavow prejudice. The finding that implicit cognitive effects are often reduced by focusing judges' attention on their judgment task provides a basis for evaluating applications (such as affirmative action) aimed at reducing such unintended discrimination.
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“Furthermore, it is not only implicit but it is also often not even within the conscious awareness of the person who is exhibiting the bias.”
From Biased and biasing: the hidden bias cascade and bias snowball effects (2025) · cites this paper as Greenwald & Banaji, 1995
In the citing paper
“Indeed, indirect measures are required where implicit cognitive bias is concerned (Greenwald & Banaji, 1995).”
From Biased and biasing: the hidden bias cascade and bias snowball effects (2025) · cites this paper as Greenwald & Banaji, 1995
In the citing paper
“Researchers have found that self-esteem—defined as a person's sense of self-worth—is closely associated with well-being and a number of other adaptive outcomes.”
From Self-esteem and subjective well-being revisited: The roles of personal, relational, and collective self-esteem (2017) · cites this paper as [5]
In the citing paper
“Despite egalitarian beliefs, most Americans possess implicit negative associations with minority groups that are kept in check through effortful cognitive control (31,32).”
From Economic scarcity alters the perception of race (2014) · cites this paper as [31]
Citations
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The benefits of being present: Mindfulness and its role in psychological well-being
Brown, K. W., & Ryan, R. M. (2003) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.84.4.822 · Cited by 13,448
Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition: the implicit association test
Greenwald, A. G., McGhee, D. E., & Schwartz, J. L. K. (1998) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.74.6.1464 · Cited by 9,210
Self-citationThe emotional dog and its rational tail: A social intuitionist approach to moral judgment.
Haidt, J. (2001) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.108.4.814 · Cited by 8,048
The theory of planned behaviour: Reactions and reflections
Ajzen, I. (2011) · Psychology and Health · doi:10.1080/08870446.2011.613995 · Cited by 4,846
Nature and Operation of Attitudes
Ajzen, I. (2001) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.52.1.27 · Cited by 4,321
Metadata
- Authors
- Greenwald, A. G., & Banaji, M. R.
- Affiliations
- University of Washington (US)
- Yale University (US)
- Venue
- Psychological Review
- Published
- 1995
- Volume
- 102
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 4-27
- ISSN
- 0033-295X (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1471
- OpenAlex
- W1965514675
- Cited by
- 6,682
- References
- 297
- Citations by year
- 2026: 208 · 2025: 313 · 2024: 283 · 2023: 336 · 2022: 326 · 2021: 304 · 2020: 501 · 2019: 379 · 2018: 294 · 2017: 284 · 2016: 300 · 2015: 270 · 2014: 256 · 2013: 267 · 2012: 253
- FWCI
- 232.52
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Review (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation (9205890, 9120987)
- National Institute of Mental Health (R01MH041328, MH41328)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Racial and Ethnic Identity Research
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
- Keywords
- implicit cognition, implicit attitudes, self-esteem, implicit stereotypes, prejudice, indirect measures, attentional focus, discrimination, affirmative action, construct validity
- MeSH terms
- Attitude, Humans, Prejudice, Self Concept, Social Behavior, Social Perception, Stereotyping, Unconscious, Psychology
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