Gender and Culture Differences in Emotion.

Some primary studies have found patterns similar to ours regarding gender differences and gender equity for outcomes such as self-construals and emotion.

“Yet, as noted in the introduction, some primary studies have found similar patterns to ours regarding gender differences and gender equity, for outcomes such as self-construals (Guimond et al., 2007) and emotion (Fischer, Rodriguez Mosquera, van Vianen, & Manstead, 2004).”

There exist significant differences in how different individuals, in particular men and women, within one culture process emotions.

“There exist also significant differences in how different individuals, in particular men and women, within one culture process emotions (Fischer et al., 2004).”

Males had higher levels of externalizing anger, antagonism, brow furrowing, and loneliness than females, with SMDs of 0.07-0.11.

“whereas males had higher levels of externalizing anger, antagonism, brow furrowing, and loneliness (SMDs = 0.07–0.11; Chaplin & Aldao, 2013; Fischer et al., 2004; Maes et al., 2019; McDuff et al., 2017)”

Females reported higher levels of internalizing emotions such as guilt, shame, crying, and fear than males, with SMDs of 0.12-1.11.

“Regarding Negative emotions, females reported higher levels of internalizing emotions, such as guilt, shame, crying, and fear (SMDs = 0.12–1.11; Chaplin & Aldao, 2013; Else-Quest et al., 2010; Fischer et al., 2004; van Hemert et al., 2011)”

Some studies indicated no sex differences in negative emotions such as self-reported anger, negative emotion, and powerful emotions.

“However, there were also studies that indicated no sex differences regarding Negative emotions (self-reported anger, negative emotion, powerful emotions; Archer, 2004; Chaplin & Aldao, 2013; Fischer et al., 2004).”

For loneliness and antagonism, sex differences seem to be smaller in countries with higher living conditions.

“regarding loneliness and antagonism, sex differences seem to be smaller in countries with higher living conditions (Fischer et al., 2004; Maes et al., 2019).”

For measures with no sex difference, no clear pattern can be seen with living conditions.

“Finally, no clear pattern can be seen for measures for which there is no sex difference (Archer, 2004; Chaplin & Aldao, 2013; Fischer et al., 2004).”