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Effect size estimates: Current use, calculations, and interpretation.

Fritz, Catherine O., Morris, Peter E., Richler, Jennifer J.·2012·Journal of Experimental Psychology: General

DOI 10.1037/a0024338

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Abstract

The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (American Psychological Association, 2001, American Psychological Association, 2010) calls for the reporting of effect sizes and their confidence intervals. Estimates of effect size are useful for determining the practical or theoretical importance of an effect, the relative contributions of factors, and the power of an analysis. We surveyed articles published in 2009 and 2010 in the Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, noting the statistical analyses reported and the associated reporting of effect size estimates. Effect sizes were reported for fewer than half of the analyses; no article reported a confidence interval for an effect size. The most often reported analysis was analysis of variance, and almost half of these reports were not accompanied by effect sizes. Partial η2 was the most commonly reported effect size estimate for analysis of variance. For t tests, 2/3 of the articles did not report an associated effect size estimate; Cohen's d was the most often reported. We provide a straightforward guide to understanding, selecting, calculating, and interpreting effect sizes for many types of data and to methods for calculating effect size confidence intervals and power analysis.

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Boundary extension is attenuated in patients with ventromedial prefrontal cortex damage
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Determining qualitative effect size ratings using a likelihood ratio scatter matrix in diagnostic test accuracy systematic reviews
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Cerebrospinal fluid neurogranin/β‐site APP‐cleaving enzyme 1 predicts cognitive decline in preclinical Alzheimer's disease
Kirsebom, B., Nordengen, K., Selnes, P., Waterloo, K. K., Torsetnes, S. B., Gísladóttir, B., Brix, B., Vanmechelen, E., Bråthen, G., Hessen, E., et al. (2018) · Alzheimer s & Dementia Translational Research & Clinical Interventions · doi:10.1016/j.trci.2018.10.003 · Cited by 27
“Effect sizes are provided for ANOVA (hp(2)) and Kruskal-Wallis test (h(2)) [37].”
Method
Enseñanza de la geometría con el software GeoGebra en estudiantes secundarios de una institución educativa en Lima
Diaz-Nunja, L., Rodríguez, J., & Lingán-Huamán, S. K. (2018) · Propósitos y Representaciones · doi:10.20511/pyr2018.v6n2.251 · Cited by 27
Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation Does Not Counteract Cognitive Fatigue, but Induces Sleepiness and an Inter-Hemispheric Shift in Brain Oxygenation
Borragán, G., Gilson, M., Guerrero-Mosquera, C., Ricci, E. D., Slama, H., & Peigneux, P. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02351 · Cited by 29
Artificial intelligence for understanding concussion: Retrospective cluster analysis on the balance and vestibular diagnostic data of concussion patients
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NDVI is not reliable as a surrogate of forage abundance for a large herbivore in tropical forest habitat
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Prevalence and factors associated with asymptomatic Achilles tendon pathology in male distance runners
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“El cálculo del tamaño del efecto mediante el índice η2 evidencia que las diferencias estadísticas encontradas en las variables son independientes del tamaño del efecto, al presentar valores por encima de .039 (Fritz et al., 2012).”
Background
Financial decision-making in a community sample of adults with and without current symptoms of ADHD
Bangma, D. F., Tucha, L., Fuermaier, A. B. M., Tucha, O. M., & Koerts, J. (2020) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0239343 · Cited by 30
Fearlessness about death predicts adolescent suicide attempt: A preliminary analysis
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Acoustic analysis of vowel formant frequencies in genetically-related and non-genetically related speakers with implications for forensic speaker comparison
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“[42, 43]), in the present study: “speaker”.”
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Quantification of Daily-Living Gait Quantity and Quality Using a Wrist-Worn Accelerometer in Huntington's Disease
Keren, K., Busse, M. E., Fritz, N. E., Muratori, L. M., Gazit, E., Hillel, I., Scheinowitz, M., Gurevich, T., Inbar, N., Omer, N., et al. (2021) · Frontiers in Neurology · doi:10.3389/fneur.2021.719442 · Cited by 29
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Transcranial direct current stimulation improve symptoms and modulates cortical inhibition in obsessive-compulsive disorder: A TMS-EEG study
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Look who is complaining: Psychological factors predicting subjective cognitive complaints in a large community sample of older adults
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“The sr 2 was interpreted as small ( < .01), medium (.01 – .059) or large ( > .059) (Fritz et al., 2012).”
Reducing the peak tibial acceleration of running by music‐based biofeedback: A quasi‐randomized controlled trial
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“In the second place, techniques such as using estimates of the population effect published in related literature (e.g., a meta-analysis or a previous similar study; Fritz et al., 2012; Polit & Beck, 2004) for the sample-size calculation of the current study generally lead to underpowered studies.”
Method
Do Patients With a Failed Metal-on-metal Hip Implant With a Pseudotumor Present Differences in Their Peripheral Blood Lymphocyte Subpopulations?
Catelas, I., Lehoux, E. A., Hurda, I., Baskey, S. J., Gala, L., Foster, R. C. B., Kim, P. R., & Beaulé, P. E. (2015) · Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research · doi:10.1007/s11999-015-4466-8 · Cited by 27
“data, adjusted Cohen’s d ES for nonparametric data [7, 20] and confidence intervals (CIs) for Cohen’s d and adjusted”
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Fostering pre-service teachers’ views about nature of science: evaluation of a new STEM curriculum
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“This approximately represents a medium effect size (.50 ≤ g .80) (Fritz, Morris, and Richler 2012).”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
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Cameron, J., Thompson, D. R., Szer, D., Greig, J., & Ski, C. F. (2017) · Journal of Clinical Nursing · doi:10.1111/jocn.13836 · Cited by 27
“Effect size was calculated as r = z / √N (Fritz et al. 2012).”
Method
A comparison of sleep patterns in youth soccer players and non-athletes
Whitworth‐Turner, C. M., Michele, R. D., Muir, I. H., Gregson, W. A., & Drust, B. (2017) · Science and Medicine in Football · doi:10.1080/24733938.2017.1366040 · Cited by 27
“The magnitude of PS was interpreted according to the proposed correspondence between PS and Cohen’s d (Fritz et al. 2012).”
Method
Using unexpected questions to elicit information and cues to deceit in interpreter‐based interviews
Vrij, A., Leal, S., Mann, S. A., Fisher, R. P., Dalton, G., Jo, E., Шаболтас, А. В., Khaleeva, M., Granskaya, J. V., & Houston, K. A. (2018) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.3382 · Cited by 28
“In this article, we are interested in the practical relevance of the effect and d-values are indicators of practical relevance (Fritz et al., 2012).”
Background
Can young students understand the mathematical concept of equality? A whole-year arithmetic teaching experiment in second grade
Fischer, J., Sander, E., Sensevy, G., Vilette, B., & Richard, J. (2018) · European Journal of Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s10212-018-0384-y · Cited by 27
A novel patient decision aid for aftercare in breast cancer patients: A promising tool to reduce costs by individualizing aftercare
Klaassen, L. A., Dirksen, C. D., Boersma, L. J., Hoving, C., Portz, M. J. G., Mertens, P. M. G., Janssen-Engelen, I. L. E., Lenssen, A. M. M. R. N., Marais, M. B. C., Starren-Goessens, C. M. J., et al. (2018) · The Breast · doi:10.1016/j.breast.2018.06.015 · Cited by 27
“Since effect sizes are less influenced by sample size effects than significance levels [29] and a relatively small sample was used in this pilot test, effect sizes (h(2)p) (0.”
Method
Exploring attentional focus of older adult fallers during heightened postural threat
Ellmers, T. J., Cocks, A. J., & Young, W. R. (2019) · Psychological Research · doi:10.1007/s00426-019-01190-6 · Cited by 30
Children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Perform Differently on Pediatric Concussion Assessment
Cook, N. E., Kelshaw, P. M., Caswell, S. V., & Iverson, G. L. (2019) · The Journal of Pediatrics · doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2019.07.048 · Cited by 27

Authors: Fritz, C. O., Morris, P. E., & Richler, J. J.
Affiliations: Lancaster University (GB)
ORCID: Richler, Jennifer J.
Venue: Journal of Experimental Psychology: General
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 2012
Volume: 141
Issue: 1
Pages: 2-18
ISSN: 0096-3445 (ISSN-L)
1939-2222
DOI: 10.1037/a0024338
OpenAlex: W2148540129
Cited by: 5,199
References: 52
Citations by year: 2026: 484 · 2025: 626 · 2024: 516 · 2023: 502 · 2022: 581 · 2021: 607 · 2020: 491 · 2019: 339 · 2018: 293 · 2017: 239 · 2016: 198 · 2015: 138 · 2014: 86 · 2013: 67 · 2012: 21
FWCI: 61.22
Type: journal article
Language: en
Update notices: correction (2011-10-24)
Open access: closed
Locations: Journal of Experimental Psychology General (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Lancaster EPrints (Lancaster University) (submittedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Statistics, Probability and Uncertainty › Meta-analysis and systematic reviews
Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Psychology Research and Bibliometrics
Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Statistical Methods in Epidemiology
Keywords: effect size, effect size reporting, confidence intervals, power analysis, partial eta squared, Cohen's d, analysis of variance, t-test, statistical reporting
MeSH terms: Data Interpretation, Statistical, Humans, Research Design, Statistics as Topic, Sample Size

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