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Rumination as a mechanism linking stressful life events to symptoms of depression and anxiety: Longitudinal evidence in early adolescents and adults.
Open accessAbstract
Rumination is a well-established risk factor for the onset of major depression and anxiety symptomatology in both adolescents and adults. Despite the robust associations between rumination and internalizing psychopathology, there is a dearth of research examining factors that might lead to a ruminative response style. In the current study, we examined whether social environmental experiences were associated with rumination. Specifically, we evaluated whether self-reported exposure to stressful life events predicted subsequent increases in rumination. We also investigated whether rumination served as a mechanism underlying the longitudinal association between self-reported stressful life events and internalizing symptoms. Self-reported stressful life events, rumination, and symptoms of depression and anxiety were assessed in 2 separate longitudinal samples. A sample of early adolescents (N = 1,065) was assessed at 3 time points spanning 7 months. A sample of adults (N = 1,132) was assessed at 2 time points spanning 12 months. In both samples, self-reported exposure to stressful life events was associated longitudinally with increased engagement in rumination. In addition, rumination mediated the longitudinal relationship between self-reported stressors and symptoms of anxiety in both samples and the relationship between self-reported life events and symptoms of depression in the adult sample. Identifying the psychological and neurobiological mechanisms that explain a greater propensity for rumination following stressors remains an important goal for future research. This study provides novel evidence for the role of stressful life events in shaping characteristic responses to distress, specifically engagement in rumination, highlighting potentially useful targets for interventions aimed at preventing the onset of depression and anxiety.
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“In populations with higher levels of anxiety, these anticipatory thoughts may foster: 1) excessive and uncontrollable concern in the form of ruminating thoughts that perpetuate and increase anxiety, leading to a “descending spiral”; 2) compulsive or automatic actions to alleviate anxiety, often accompanied by self-judgment which may also perpetuate the descending spiral [13, 14].”
From Dispositional mindfulness, anticipation and abstinence symptoms related to hypnotic dependence among insomniac women who seek treatment: A cross-sectional study (2018) · cites this paper as [13]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn the citing paper
“Rumination has been defined as a perserverative focus on one’s symptoms of distress (Nolen-Hoeksema 1991) and has consistently been associated with higher levels of depressive symptoms (Michl et al. 2013; Nolan et al. 1998; Segerstrom et al. 2000).”
From Executive Function Deficits in Daily Life Prospectively Predict Increases in Depressive Symptoms (2014) · cites this paper as Michl et al. 2013
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“On the one hand, individuals who ruminate more are more likely to experience stress due to their inability to disengage from negative thoughts, which can intensify the perception of stressors (Michl et al., 2013).”
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“Existing studies have demonstrated that rumination is risky for teachers’ well-being (Michl et al., 2013) and positively related to teachers’ stress and depressive symptoms (Wu et al., 2023).”
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“In line with this theory, previous studies have demonstrated that frequent exposure to stressors including those in the interpersonal domain is concurrently and prospectively associated with increased rumination (Nolen-Hoeksema et al. 1994; Moberly and Watkins 2008a; Michl et al. 2013).”
BackgroundResultThe association between BIS/BAS and fear of COVID-19 infection among women
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“Moreover, Katz and Yovel (2020) demonstrated the relationship between punishment sensitivity and rumination, a mechanism that linked stressful life situations (e.g., a pandemic situation) with depression and anxiety (Michl et al., 2013).”
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“Rumination is common among people with PTSD (Michael et al., 2007) and depression (Krause et al., 2018; Michl et al., 2013).”
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The Manifestation of Stress and Rumination in Musicians
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“Stress has complex and reciprocal associations with anxiety and depression, and these relationships may be influenced by cognitive vulnerabilities, including rumination (Liu & Alloy, 2010; Michl et al., 2013; Morrison & O ’ Connor, 2005).”
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“In a longitudinal study, rumination mediated the relationship between adolescent stressful life events and adult anxiety.(19) Additionally, RNT is predictive of increased anxiety in adults.”
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“Additionally, increases in rumination over time are also associated with greater risk for anxiety and depression symptoms (Young & Dietrich, 2015) and may be a mechanism through which exposure to stressful contexts confers risk for psychopathology (Michl et al., 2013).”
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“Conversely, alternative emotion regulation strategies have been associated with the exacerbation of negative affect, such as rumination (Michl et al., 2013) and catastrophizing (Stikkelbroek et al., 2016).”
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“Reduced satisfaction with life is associated with higher levels of nonproductive thoughts, suggesting that continuous rumination and negative thinking significantly impair subjective well-being [33].”
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“, rumination) of depression are similar for both genders [26] the relationship between rumination and depression may differ between genders.”
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Zhu, Y., Zhao, C., & Zhuang, J.-Y. (2023) · Australian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1080/00049530.2023.2264938 · Cited by 9
“Generally, rumination is considered to be a maladaptive coping strategy (Michl et al., 2013) due to perseverative thoughts prolonging stressors’ negative effects on the ruminating person (Watkins & Roberts, 2020).”
BackgroundSchepers, R., & Markus, C. R. (2017) · Biological Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2017.07.002 · Cited by 7
The cross‐lagged relationship between interpersonal forgiveness and depression symptoms in China
Zhang, S., Liang, J., Sun, S., & Wu, Z. (2019) · International Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1002/ijop.12580 · Cited by 7
The Mediating Role of Rumination on Parenting Style, Childhood Trauma, and Adulthood Depression
Bahari, A., Firoozabadi, M. A., & Mohammadkhani, S. (2019) · Practice in Clinical Psychology · doi:10.32598/jpcp.7.3.197 · Cited by 7
Scaini, S., Forresi, B., Torres, D., Piron, R., & Giani, L. (2024) · Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy · doi:10.1891/jcp-2023-0050 · Cited by 7
Bai, Y., Ben, C., Xu, W., Yu Qing, W. U., & Liu, Y. (2024) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2024.117191 · Cited by 8
Marcos-Escobar, G., Gómez, M. E., & Unanue, W. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1668518 · Cited by 6
Qian, Y., & Lou, H. (2025) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-025-24604-0 · Cited by 6
“A longitudinal follow-up study conducted by Michl et al. [40] showed that stress events can predict anxiety and depression 7 months later.”
Meyer, M. L. (2022) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn_a_01926 · Cited by 6
Kilic, Z., McKone, K. M. P., Stout, C. D., Grad-Freilich, M. J., Ladouceur, C. D., Choukas‐Bradley, S., & Silk, J. S. (2024) · Affective Science · doi:10.1007/s42761-024-00258-w · Cited by 7
“On the other hand, rumination—negative repetitive thinking regarding stressors—may lead to higher levels of negative affect and depressive symptoms in chronic, uncontrollable, and emotionally salient situations (Michl et al., 2013).”
Le, L., Moulds, M. L., & Nickerson, A. (2018) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2018.05.001 · Cited by 6
Swords, C. M., Lecarie, E. K., Doane, L. D., & Hilt, L. M. (2021) · Journal of Adolescence · doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2021.09.006 · Cited by 6
Schoellbauer, J., Tement, S., & Korunka, C. (2023) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-023-00628-4 · Cited by 7
“In turn, negative thinking about work outside working hours is negatively associated with workers’ wellbeing, such as increased feelings of anxiety (Kirkegaard Thomsen et al., 2011; Michl et al., 2013), exhaustion (Donahue et al.”
BackgroundClarke, N. A., Akeroyd, M. A., Henshaw, H., Hall, D. A., Mohamad, W. N. W., & Hoare, D. J. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1006349 · Cited by 6
“, 2017), as well as rumination and general psychological distress (Michl et al., 2013; Wilkinson et al., 2013).”
BackgroundMadhavan, S., Stewart, L. C., Birk, S. L., Nielsen, J. D., & Olino, T. M. (2023) · Child Psychiatry & Human Development · doi:10.1007/s10578-023-01509-w · Cited by 7
“The association between NLEs and psychopathology, as well as sex differences in these associations, has been found in adolescents and adults [ 8 , 20 , 58 , 59 ].”
Shaw, Z. A., Handley, E. D., Warmingham, J. M., & Starr, L. R. (2023) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579423000974 · Cited by 7
“In a prospective study, adolescents and adults reporting greater self-reported stress exposure showed increases in rumination over time (Michl et al., 2013).”
McKenney, E. E., Cucchiara, C. L., & Gotham, K. O. (2023) · Journal of American College Health · doi:10.1080/07448481.2023.2283742 · Cited by 5
“16,41 These findings extend previous evidence on worsening mental health in young adults to the pandemic time period and in a neurodiverse sample.”
Grief and Prolonged Grief Disorder
(2023) · American Psychiatric Association Publishing eBooks · doi:10.1176/appi.books.9781615379934 · Cited by 6
Fletcher, A. C., Jensen, M. R., & Vrshek‐Schallhorn, S. (2022) · Emerging Adulthood · doi:10.1177/21676968221089087 · Cited by 18
Shao, X., Dong, Z., Zhang, S., Qiao, Y., Zhang, H., & Guo, H. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1474108 · Cited by 5
“Individuals who frequently experience stressful events are more inclined to have more serious and long-term negative emotions post-event and are therefore more likely to engage in ruminative thinking (22, 23).”
Khosravi, A., Mahat, S., Syyrilä, T., & Härkänen, M. (2025) · Journal of Clinical Nursing · doi:10.1111/jocn.17761 · Cited by 5
Ma, X., Yang, P., Li, D., Zhou, J., Liu, M., Han, X., Liu, J., & Chen, X. (2025) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-025-02217-5 · Cited by 5
Li, W., He, Y., & Xiao, J. (2023) · International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction · doi:10.1007/s11469-023-01194-9 · Cited by 5
“Specifically, Michl et al. (2013) suggested that stressful life events and rumination may contribute to developing symptoms of anxiety and depression in both adults and adolescents.”
Maladaptive Coping Mechanisms to Stress Among University Students From an Integrative Review
Aloka, P. J. O., Ooko, M. A., Onyango, T. K. O., & Orao, R. O. (2023) · Advances in higher education and professional development book series · doi:10.4018/979-8-3693-0708-3.ch012 · Cited by 5
Metadata
- Authors
- Michl, L. C., McLaughlin, K. A., Shepherd, K., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S.
- Affiliations
- Boston Children's Hospital (US)
- Kent State University (US)
- Venue
- Journal of Abnormal Psychology
- Published
- 2013-05
- Volume
- 122
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 339-352
- ISSN
- 0021-843X (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1846
- PMC
- PMC4116082
- OpenAlex
- W2062427232
- Cited by
- 694
- References
- 96
- Citations by year
- 2026: 41 · 2025: 70 · 2024: 75 · 2023: 75 · 2022: 60 · 2021: 58 · 2020: 51 · 2019: 44 · 2018: 50 · 2017: 48 · 2016: 50 · 2015: 37 · 2014: 29 · 2013: 4
- FWCI
- 54.07
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Journal of Abnormal Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (K01MH092526)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Mental Health Research Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Keywords
- rumination, life events, depression, anxiety, internalizing problems, mediation, early adolescents, adults, social environment, risk factors for depression, depression prevention
- MeSH terms
- Adaptation, Psychological, Adolescent, Psychology, Adolescent, Adult, Analysis of Variance, Anxiety, Child, Depressive Disorder, Female, Humans, Internal-External Control, Life Change Events, Longitudinal Studies, Male, Stress, Psychological, Thinking, Young Adult
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