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Cited by 56Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional DevelopmentNeurotransmitter Receptor Influence on BehaviorStress Responses and Cortisol

Emotion Regulation Moderates the Risk Associated with the 5-HTT Gene and Stress in Children

Open access
Ford, Brett Q., Mauss, Iris B., Troy, Allison S., Smolen, Andrew, Hankin, Benjamin·2014·Emotion
DOI 10.1037/a0036835PMC PMC4172506
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Abstract

Carrying a short allele in the serotonin transporter polymorphism (5-HTTLPR) while experiencing stressful environments is linked to elevated risk for depression. What might offset this risky combination of genes and environment? We hypothesized that individual-level factors may play a protective role. Specifically, we examined whether individuals' ability to decrease their stress responses via effective emotion regulation may be an important moderating factor and addressed this hypothesis in a socioeconomically diverse sample of 205 children aged 9-15 years. At-risk children (short-allele carriers in high-stress contexts) exhibited more depressive symptoms than other groups. Importantly, at-risk children who used effective emotion regulation did not exhibit increased depressive symptoms. These results have important implications for the basic science of understanding risk and resilience: in addition to genes and environment, individuals' agentic ability to self-regulate may need to be considered as a critical third factor. Given that emotion regulation is learnable, these results also have strong public-health implications.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

In a socioeconomically diverse sample of 205 children aged 9–15, the risk of depressive symptoms among highly stressed 5-HTTLPR short-allele carriers was buffered by greater use of cognitive reappraisal. The findings suggest that individual-level emotion regulation can moderate gene-by-environment risk.

Key findings

  • At-risk children (short-allele carriers in high-stress contexts) exhibited more depressive symptoms than other groups, but at-risk children who used effective emotion regulation did not show increased depressive symptoms.
  • There was a significant three-way interaction between genotype, stress, and reappraisal predicting depressive symptoms, β = −.20, t(197) = 3.68, p < .001; highly stressed short-allele carriers reported fewer depressive symptoms when high versus low on reappraisal, β = −.39, t(132) = 3.94, p < .001.
  • High-reappraisal short-allele carriers reported depressive symptoms comparable to non-carriers under high stress, β = .07, t(197) < 1, p = .52, and under low stress, β = .05, t(197) < 1, p = .61.
  • Supplementary analyses controlling for child age, sex, race, parent socioeconomic status, parent reappraisal, parent stress, and parent depressive symptoms retained the three-way interaction, β = −.24, t(88) = 2.86, p = .005; with rs25531 functional variants, the three-way interaction was marginal, β = −.16, t(193) = 1.74, p = .084.

Methods

  • Participants were 205 children aged 9–15 (M = 12.09; 62% female) from the Denver, CO area, recruited through school districts and assessed at an 18-month follow-up; the sample was socioeconomically heterogeneous and largely Caucasian (74%).
  • Children provided saliva DNA for 5-HTTLPR genotyping and were grouped as short-allele carriers (SS/SL) versus non-carriers (LL); measures included an adapted Emotion Regulation Questionnaire for cognitive reappraisal (α = .82), the Adolescent Life Events Questionnaire for stress over the past 3 months, and the Children’s Depression Inventory for depressive symptoms (α = .82).
  • Main analysis used regression predicting depressive symptoms from genotype, stress, reappraisal, all main effects and two-way interactions, and the three-way interaction; continuous variables were mean-centered, genotype was effect coded, and simple slopes were examined at +/− 1 SD from the mean.

Limitations

  • The paper states that the data are cross-sectional and do not directly speak to a causal model; future longitudinal assessments and experimental manipulations or training programs are needed to test whether reappraisal causally protects against depression.
  • The paper states that replication in larger samples is important, despite adequate power in the present data (.73 two-tailed, .82 one-tailed), and that additional measures of stress, reappraisal ability, and clinical or parent-reported depression are needed.
  • The paper states that it assessed the frequency of reappraisal use, not ability, so it is unclear whether individuals who improve reappraisal through training would reap the same benefits as natural reappraisers; the text also reports non-random attrition, with completers more likely to be Caucasian and having fewer depressive symptoms, which may yield a more conservative test.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1037/a0036835

Cites

Statistics

Claims the paper makes

0 of 64 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingown data

    At-risk children (short-allele carriers in high-stress contexts) exhibited more depressive symptoms than other groups.

    “At-risk children (short-allele carriers in high-stress contexts) exhibited more depressive symptoms than other groups.”
    • Also stated in: § Results · plain
      “we replicated the two-way interaction between genotype and stress often hypothesized in gene-by-environment interactions, β = .21, t(197) = 3.44, p = .001, such that greater stress was associated with more depressive symptoms in short-allele carriers”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    At-risk children who used effective emotion regulation did not exhibit increased depressive symptoms.

    “Importantly, at-risk children who used effective emotion regulation did not exhibit increased depressive symptoms.”
    • Also stated in: § Results · plain
      “highly stressed short-allele carriers reported significantly fewer depressive symptoms when they were high on reappraisal, compared to when they were low on reappraisal, β = −.39, t(132) = 3.94, p < .001”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    There was a significant main effect of reappraisal, such that participants higher in reappraisal reported fewer depressive symptoms.

    “and a significant main effect of reappraisal, β = −.27, t(197) = 4.77, p < .001, such that participants higher (vs. lower) in reappraisal reported fewer depressive symptoms.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    There was a significant three-way interaction between genotype, stress, and reappraisal in predicting depressive symptoms.

    “Finally, there was a significant three-way interaction between genotype, stress, and reappraisal, β = −.20, t(197) = 3.68, p < .001.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Highly stressed short-allele carriers reported significantly fewer depressive symptoms when they were high on reappraisal compared to when they were low on reappraisal.

    “highly stressed short-allele carriers reported significantly fewer depressive symptoms when they were high on reappraisal, compared to when they were low on reappraisal, β = −.39, t(132) = 3.94, p < .001”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Aiken & West, 1991

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 20
  • May combine two claims. 21
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 1
  • Not yet classified. 1

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In an analysis comparing short-allele carriers plus LG carriers with LA carriers, the three-way interaction was in the same direction but statistically marginal (β = −.16, p = .084).

    “the three-way genotype by stress by reappraisal interaction, β = −.16, t(193) = 1.74, p = .084.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    All simple effects that were significant when examining the 5-HTTLPR genotype remained significant when taking into account the functional variants of the long allele, and all simple effects that were not significant remained not significant.

    “all simple effects that were significant when examining the 5-HTTLPR genotype remain significant when taking into account the functional variants of the long allele (all ps < .043), and all simple effects that were not significant when examining the 5-HTTLPR genotype remain not significant when taking into account the functional variants (all ps > .11).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    For individuals who use reappraisal more frequently, both short-allele carriers and non-carriers report moderately low levels of depression in low stress environments and somewhat higher levels of depression in higher stress environments.

    “both short-allele carriers and non-carriers alike report moderately low levels of depression in low stress environments, and somewhat higher levels of depression in higher stress environments”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    For individuals with low reappraisal use, short-allele carriers experience worse health in high stress environments and better health in low stress environments compared to non-carriers.

    “for individuals who use reappraisal less frequently, short-allele carriers experience worse health in negative environments (i.e., high stress), but experience better health in positive environments (i.e., low stress), compared to non-carriers”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Research supports a robust link between stress and depression.

    “Research supports a robust link between stress and depression (Hammen, 2005).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Hammen, 2005

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    For people whose genes and environment put them at risk, using cognitive reappraisal may be a useful strategy to offset this risk.

    “Thus, for people whose genes and environment put them at risk (i.e., stressed individuals who carry a short allele in the 5-HTTLPR genotype), using cognitive reappraisal may be a useful strategy to offset this risk.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Several models suggest that negative emotional reactivity is a mechanism linking gene-by-environment risk and depression.

    “several models suggest that negative emotional reactivity is a mechanism linking gene-by-environment risk and depression”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Caspi et al., 2010

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The present results provide support for models of gene-by-environment interactions that emphasize the risk but also the potential rewards associated with the short allele.

    “The present results also provide support for models of gene-by-environment interactions that emphasize the risk but also the potential rewards associated with the short allele”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Belsky & Pluess, 2009

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Boyce & Ellis, 2005

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Hankin et al., 2011

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Some studies have found the expected interaction between genotype and stressful environment on emotional outcomes like depression in children, and others have not.

    “some studies have found the expected interaction between genotype and stressful environment on emotional outcomes like depression (Cicchetti, Rogosch, & Sturge-Apple, 2007; Nobile et al., 2009; Petersen et al., 2012), and others have not (Araya et al., 2009; Chipman et al., 2007).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Cicchetti et al., 2007

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Nobile et al., 2009

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Petersen et al., 2012

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Children demonstrate lower reappraisal ability than adults.

    “demonstrate lower reappraisal ability than adults (McRae, Gross, et al., 2012).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites McRae et al., 2012

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Prior research confirms that young children understand the contingencies of their emotions and understand that it is possible to change how you feel by changing how you think.

    “Prior research confirms that young children understand the contingencies of their emotions and understand that it is possible to change how you feel by changing how you think”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Bamford & Lagattuta, 2012

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Lagattuta & Wellman, 2001

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    The depressive symptoms scale had an internal consistency of α = .82.

    “Responses were summed to create a composite score, α = .82.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductcitation

    We used well-validated, standardized, and widely-used self-report measures to assess current severity of depressive symptoms and the severity of stress experienced over the last 3 months.

    “We used well-validated, standardized, and widely-used self-report measures to assess current severity of depressive symptoms (Kovacs, 1981) and the severity of stress experienced over the last 3 months (Hankin & Abramson, 2002).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Kovacs, 1981

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Hankin & Abramson, 2002

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    The 5-HTTLPR genotypes were distributed according to Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium.

    “These genotypes were distributed according to Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The differential susceptibility model proposes that certain individuals (e.g., those with a short allele) are more sensitive to their environment 'for better or worse', such that they experience worse psychological health outcomes in negative environments, yet better psychological health outcomes in positive environments, compared to their less sensitive counterparts (e.g., those without a short).

    “The differential susceptibility model proposes that certain individuals (e.g., those with a short allele) are more sensitive to their environment ‘for better or worse’, such that they experience worse psychological health outcomes in negative environments, yet better psychological health outcomes in positive environments, compared to their less sensitive counterparts (e.g., those without a short”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Belsky, Bakermans-Kranenburg, & van Ijzendoorn, 2007

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductcitation

    We assessed cognitive reappraisal using an adaptation of a widely-used measure.

    “we assessed cognitive reappraisal using an adaptation of a widely-used measure (Gross & John, 2003).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Gross & John, 2003

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The socioeconomically diverse sample enhances the generalizability of the findings.

    “Finally, the socioeconomically diverse sample enhances the generalizability of the findings.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    The children who completed the 18-month follow-up did not significantly differ from those who did not in age, levels of stress, or genotype.

    “These two samples of children did not significantly differ in age (p = .90), levels of stress (p = .59), or genotype (p = .78).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    This grouping (short-allele carriers vs non-carriers) is consistent with prior research and with theoretical support for the dominant genetic effect of the short allele on outcomes.

    “This grouping is consistent with prior research (Lenze et al., 2005; Otte, McCaffery, Ali, & Whooley, 2007; Ramasubbu, Tobia, Buchan, & Bech-Hansen, 2006) and with theoretical support for the dominant genetic effect of the short allele on outcomes (Greenberg et al., 1999; Lesch et al., 1996)”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Lenze et al., 2005

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Otte et al., 2007

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Greenberg et al., 1999

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Children are less likely to use reappraisal than adults.

    “Children are less likely to use reappraisal than adults (Garnefski, Legerstee, Kraaij, Van Den Kommer, & Teerds, 2002)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Garnefski et al., 2002

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    The cognitive reappraisal scale had an internal consistency of α = .82.

    “This scale includes 6 items rated on a scale of 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree) measuring the extent to which the participant engages in cognitive reappraisal (e.g., I control my feelings by changing the way I think about the situation I’m in), α = .82.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The primary analyses examined 5-HTTLPR genotype and not the functional variants of the long allele, rs25531, because the majority of studies focus on 5-HTTLPR.

    “While we conducted our primary analyses examining the 5-HTTPLR genotype and not the functional variants of the long allele, rs25531 (i.e., LA and LG), because the majority of studies focus on 5-HTTLPR (Caspi et al., 2010)”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Caspi et al., 2010

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    Compared to the sample that did not complete the 18-month follow-up, the sample that completed was marginally more likely to be female, marginally more likely to have higher family income, significantly more likely to be Caucasian, and had significantly fewer depressive symptoms.

    “Compared to the sample that did not complete the 18-month follow-up, the sample that completed the 18-month follow-up were marginally more likely to be female (p = .10), marginally more likely to have a higher family income (p = .11), significantly more likely to be Caucasian (p = .03), and had significantly fewer depressive symptoms (p = .03).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    The three-way interaction remained significant when controlling for the child's age, sex, and race, and when controlling for the child's parents' socioeconomic status, use of cognitive reappraisal, stress level, and depressive symptoms.

    “the three-way interaction (between genotype, stress, and reappraisal) remained significant when controlling for the child’s age, sex, and race (Caucasian vs. other), and when controlling for the child’s parents’ socioeconomic status, use of cognitive reappraisal, stress level, and depressive symptoms”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    Of the 350 children who began the study, 241 completed the 18-month follow-up (31% attrition).

    “Of the 350 children who began the study, 241 completed the 18-month follow-up (31% attrition).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Given the compelling empirical evidence that the 5-HTTLPR-by-stress interaction promotes heightened negative emotional reactivity to high stress environments, individuals who can counteract that reactivity may experience better psychological health outcomes.

    “we propose that individuals who can counteract that reactivity may experience better psychological health outcomes.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The effect of 5-HTTLPR and stress on depression is moderated by individual differences such that children low in reappraisal exhibit this risk, but children high in reappraisal do not exhibit this risk.

    “our findings suggest that this effect is moderated by individual differences such that children low in reappraisal exhibit this risk, but children high in reappraisal do not exhibit this risk.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Reappraisal may buffer individuals from gene-by-environment risk while still enabling individuals to be sensitive to, and benefit from, their positive environments.

    “reappraisal may provide the best of both worlds as it buffers individuals from gene-by-environment risk while still enabling individuals to be sensitive to, and benefit from, their positive environments.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    It is unlikely that depressive symptoms, stress, or genes influence cognitive reappraisal rather than the other way around.

    “We believe this hypothesis is unlikely for both theoretical and empirical reasons.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Using reappraisal relatively frequently appears to promote an individual's ability to reap the benefits of positive environments, yet not suffer much from negative environments - regardless of their genetic composition.

    “Using reappraisal relatively frequently, therefore, appears to promote an individual’s ability to reap the benefits of positive environments, yet not suffer much from negative environments – regardless of their genetic composition.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    For children, changing reappraisal may be easier than changing the stressful environment because children have less control over their stressful environments than adults.

    “This may be particularly true for children, who are even less likely to have control over their stressful environments than adults.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Changing how one thinks about a stressful environment (i.e., using cognitive reappraisal) may be easier than changing the stressful environment itself.

    “changing how one thinks about a stressful environment (i.e., using cognitive reappraisal) may be easier than changing the stressful environment itself”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Assessing individual differences like emotion regulation will play an important role in untangling the psychological health correlates of gene-by-environment interactions.

    “assessing individual differences like emotion regulation will play an important role in untangling the psychological health correlates of gene-by-environment interactions”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Training reappraisal improves emotional outcomes in the short run and in the long run.

    “training reappraisal improves emotional outcomes both in the short run (e.g., in laboratory experiments; Gross & John, 2003; McRae, Gross, et al., 2012) and in the long run (e.g., clinical interventions that train emotion regulation; Mennin, 2004)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Gross & John, 2003

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites McRae, Gross, et al., 2012

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Mennin, 2004

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Not yet classified.

    Interpretation

    Reappraisal may be better conceptualized as a trait-level individual difference that can alter the links between children's gene x environment experiences and depressive symptoms.

    “reappraisal may be better conceptualized as a trait-level individual difference that can alter the links between children’s gene x environment experiences and depressive symptoms”
    Quote in the paperNot yet classified
35 of 35

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Gene-by-environment interactions have been examined within child samples and yielded results similar to those from adult samples.

    “It is worth noting that gene-by-environment interactions have been examined within child samples and yielded results similar to those from adult samples.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Genes and stressful environments are not always modifiable.

    “Given that genes and stressful environments are not always modifiable, how can people with this risky combination avoid depression?”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Emotion regulation is learnable.

    “Given that emotion regulation is learnable, these results also have strong public-health implications.”
3 of 3

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Statistics recomputed

Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.

  • Not confirmedt(197) < 1reported p = .52 · recomputed p = .319

    “t(197) < 1, p = .52”

  • Not confirmedt(197) < 1reported p = .61 · recomputed p = .319

    “t(197) < 1, p = .61”

  • Consistentt(197) = 6.22reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “t(197) = 6.22, p < .001”

  • Consistentt(197) = 4.77reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “t(197) = 4.77, p < .001”

  • Consistentt(197) = 3.44reported p = .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “t(197) = 3.44, p = .001”

  • Consistentt(149) = 10.09reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “t(149) = 10.09, p < .001”

  • Consistentt(77) = 2.24reported p = .028 · recomputed p = .028

    “t(77) = 2.24, p = .028”

  • Consistentt(197) = 3.68reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “t(197) = 3.68, p < .001”

  • Consistentt(132) = 3.94reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “t(132) = 3.94, p < .001”

  • Consistentt(88) = 2.86reported p = .005 · recomputed p = .005

    “t(88) = 2.86, p = .005”

  • Consistentt(88) = 4.92reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “t(88) = 4.92, p < .001”

  • Consistentt(88) = 3.5reported p = .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “t(88) = 3.50, p = .001”

  • Consistentt(88) = 1.42reported p = .16 · recomputed p = .159

    “t(88) = 1.42, p = .16”

  • Consistentt(193) = 4.05reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “t(193) = 4.05, p < .001”

  • Consistentt(193) = 3.25reported p = .001 · recomputed p = .001

    “t(193) = 3.25, p = .001”

  • Consistentt(193) = 2.67reported p = .008 · recomputed p = .008

    “t(193) = 2.67, p = .008”

  • Consistentt(193) = 1.74reported p = .084 · recomputed p = .083

    “t(193) = 1.74, p = .084”

17 of 17

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Genotype-specific t-test degrees of freedom exceed group sizes

    Minor

    The reported tests have 149 degrees of freedom for short-allele carriers and 77 for non-carriers, although the genotype counts give only 137 carriers (38 + 99) and 68 non-carriers. Those degrees of freedom exceed the sizes of the respective groups.

1 of 1

The citation lists haven’t been fetched yet

References 64 · Cited by 56

Authors
Ford, B. Q., Mauss, I. B., Troy, A. S., Smolen, A., & Hankin, B.
Affiliations
  • University of California, Berkeley (US)
  • Franklin & Marshall College (US)
  • University of Colorado Boulder (US)
  • University of Denver (US)
ORCID
Venue
Emotion
Publisher
American Psychological Association (APA)
Published
2014
Volume
14
Issue
5
Pages
930-939
ISSN
  • 1528-3542 (ISSN-L)
  • 1931-1516
DOI
10.1037/a0036835
PMC
PMC4172506
OpenAlex
W2070389023
Semantic Scholar
45995a13b4ecf64bb98c408950797e42c01378db
Cited by
56
References
64
Citations by year
2026: 1 · 2025: 5 · 2024: 2 · 2023: 2 · 2022: 5 · 2021: 2 · 2020: 3 · 2019: 3 · 2018: 3 · 2017: 13 · 2016: 6 · 2015: 10 · 2014: 1
FWCI
11.83
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Locations
  • Emotion (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
  • Digital Commons - DU (University of Denver) (submittedVersion)
  • eScholarship (California Digital Library) (submittedVersion)
Funders
National Institute of Mental Health (5R01 MH077195)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neurotransmitter Receptor Influence on Behavior
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Behavioral Neuroscience › Stress Responses and Cortisol
Keywords
emotion regulation, 5-HTTLPR, serotonin transporter polymorphism, gene-environment interaction, childhood depression, depressive symptoms, stress, resilience, children, moderators
MeSH terms
Adolescent, Alleles, Child, Depression, Emotions, Female, Humans, Male, Risk Factors, Sampling Studies, Stress, Psychological, Genetic Predisposition to Disease, Polymorphism, Single Nucleotide, Serotonin Plasma Membrane Transport Proteins, Gene-Environment Interaction

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Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

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