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Cited by 64Early Childhood Education and DevelopmentNeuroscience, Education and Cognitive FunctionInnovative Teaching and Learning Methods

Top 20 principles from psychology for Pre-K-12 teaching and learning

Coalition for Psychology in Schools and Education·2015·PsycEXTRA Dataset
DOI 10.1037/e523402015-001
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Verified 2026-10-21 · 1 reference not checked yet

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This APA coalition report presents 20 psychological principles for PreK–12 teaching and learning, grouped into cognition, motivation, social-emotional context, classroom management, and assessment. Each principle is explained and translated into implications for classroom practice.

Key findings

  • The coalition began with approximately 45 “kernels”/principles, discarded low-priority items to leave 22, and synthesized them into the final 20 principles.
  • The 20 principles are organized into five areas: cognition and learning (Principles 1–8), motivation (9–12), social context/interpersonal relationships/emotional well-being (13–15), classroom management (16–17), and assessment (18–20).
  • The principles cover topics such as growth mindset, prior knowledge, transfer, deliberate practice, feedback, self-regulation, creativity, intrinsic motivation, mastery goals, teacher expectations, proximal/specific/moderately challenging goals, social contexts, relationships, emotional well-being, teaching behavioral expectations, classroom management, formative/summative assessment, validity/fairness/reliability, and fair interpretation of assessment data.
  • The report states that cross-checking against national teaching documents found support for all identified principles in one or more documents.

Methods

  • A coalition of psychologists, operating like a National Institutes of Health consensus panel, had each member identify two constructs or “kernels” from psychology deemed essential for classroom teaching and learning, yielding about 45 principles.
  • The principles were clustered into domains and validated against national blueprint publications, including APA high school psychology standards, the PRAXIS Principles of Learning and Teaching, NCATE documents, InTASC standards, a popular educational psychology textbook, and the NASP Blueprint for Training and Practice.
  • A modified Delphi process was used: four coalition members rated each principle as high, medium, or low priority on a 1–3 scale; mean scores were calculated, low-priority principles were discarded, leaving 22, which were then synthesized into the final 20.

Limitations

  • The paper does not explicitly state limitations.
  • Evident from the text: the final principles are based on expert consensus and a modified Delphi rating process rather than a systematic review or meta-analysis.
  • Evident from the text: the report presents no primary empirical data, effect sizes, or quantitative outcomes for the principles; it is a translation and synthesis document for practitioners.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1037/e523402015-001

Cites

0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

1 of 347 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Study design and conductown data
    § Methodology

    The coalition identified approximately 45 kernels/principles from psychology thought to be most essential for facilitating successful classroom teaching and learning.

    “This process led to the identification of approximately 45 kernels/principles.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Embry & Biglan, 2008 source

      The Abstract and “Designating Example Kernels for This Paper” say the paper describes 52 kernels, supporting the identification of kernels but not the claimed figure of approximately 45. The latter section presents them as examples drawn from areas including parenting, violence prevention, and substance abuse prevention; it does not identify a coalition or limit the selection to classroom teaching and learning. (LLM, conf=0.87)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Premisecitation
    § Explanation

    Student transfer or generalization of their knowledge and skills is not spontaneous or automatic.

    “Student transfer or generalization of their knowledge and skills is not spontaneous or automatic;”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Bransford, J. D., Brown, A. L., & Cocking, R. (Eds). (2000).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Mayer, R. (2008).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Saxe, G. B. (1991).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Study design and conductown data
    § Methodology

    There was support for all principles in one or more of the analyzed national blueprint publications.

    “There was support for all principles in one or more documents.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The national blueprint publications analyzed represent the broader community of educators' views on what teachers are expected to know or be able to do.
  • Interpretationreasoning
    § Explanation

    Students are better able to cope when failure is attributed to a lack of effort rather than to low ability because the former is unstable and controllable.

    “Students are better able to cope when failure is attributed to a lack of effort rather than to low ability because the former is unstable (effort fluctuates over time) and controllable (students can generally try harder if they want to).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Premisecitation
    § Explanation

    Most information, particularly when related to academic content and highly skilled activities, must be processed in some way before being stored in long-term memory.

    “Most information, particularly when related to academic content and highly skilled activities (e.g., sports; artistic endeavors such as playing a musical instrument), must be processed in some way before being stored in long-term memory.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Campitelli, G., & Gobet, F. (2011).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Dunlosky, J., Rawson, K. A., Marsh, E. J., Nathan, M. J., & Willingham, D. T. (2013). source
    • cites Roediger, H. L. (2013).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims. 57
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 68

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Explanation

    When students are not familiar with a particular knowledge domain, are not challenged by the interpersonal context or learning materials, or find the context of learning to be unfamiliar, their reasoning may be less sophisticated.

    “Conversely, when students are not familiar with a particular knowledge domain, are not challenged by the interpersonal context or learning materials, or find the context of learning to be unfamiliar, their reasoning may be less sophisticated.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given
    § Relevance for Teachers

    When teachers are consistent in their offer of help to all students and communicate mild and constructive criticism following failure, students are more likely to attribute their failure to lack of effort and to believe teachers' expressions of high expectations that they will do better in the future.

    “When teachers are consistent in their offer of help to all students and communicate mild and constructive criticism following failure, students are more likely to attribute their failure to lack of effort and to believe teachers' expressions of high expectations that they will do better in the future.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data
    § Methodology

    Low-priority principles were discarded, leaving 22 principles, which were synthesized into the final 20 presented.

    “On the basis of the mean scores, low-priority principles were discarded, leaving 22 principles. These were then analyzed for their relation to each other and were synthesized into the final 20 presented here.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The modified Delphi process and cross-checking against national blueprint documents are sufficient to identify the most important principles from psychology for preK-12 teaching and learning.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Explanation

    Students with an incremental mind-set generally focus on learning goals and are more willing to take on challenging tasks in an effort to test and expand their intelligence or ability.

    “Students with an incremental mind-set generally focus on learning goals and are more willing to take on challenging tasks in an effort to test and expand (as opposed to defensively prove) their intelligence or ability.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Relevance for Teachers

    Bringing about conceptual change requires teachers' use of specific instructional strategies.

    “Bringing about conceptual change requires teachers' use of specific instructional strategies.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given
    § References

    Students' cognitive development and learning are not limited by general stages of development.

    “Principle 3 Students' cognitive development and learning are not limited by general stages of development.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given
    § How do students think and learn?

    Students' beliefs or perceptions about intelligence and ability affect their cognitive functioning and learning.

    “Principle 1 Students' beliefs or perceptions about intelligence and ability affect their cognitive functioning and learning.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given
    § Relevance for Teachers

    Students' developmental levels can help teachers decide which instructional experiences might be appropriate and relevant, but age should not necessarily be viewed as the main or sole determinant of what a student is capable of knowing or reasoning.

    “Students' developmental levels can help teachers decide which instructional experiences might be appropriate and relevant, but age should not necessarily be viewed as the main or sole determinant of what a student is capable of knowing or reasoning.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given
    § Top 20 Principles From Psychology for PreK-12 Teaching and Learning

    What students already know affects their learning.

    “Principle 2 What students already know affects their learning.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given
    § Relevance for Teachers

    Teachers' estimation of what material should be presented and the method of presentation are more effective when they can take into account the domain-relevant and contextual knowledge of their students.

    “Teachers' estimation of what material should be presented and the method of presentation are more effective when they can take into account the domain-relevant and contextual knowledge of their students.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given
    § Explanation

    Students who believe intelligence is malleable and not fixed are more likely to adhere to an incremental or growth mind-set about intelligence.

    “Students who believe intelligence is malleable and not fixed are more likely to adhere to an 'incremental' or 'growth' mind-set about intelligence.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Relevance for Teachers

    Physics experts approach problem solving by way of major principles or laws that apply to the problem, while beginners focus on the equations and plugging numbers into the formulas.

    “For example, while physics experts approach problem solving by way of major principles or laws that apply to the problem, beginners focus on the equations and plugging numbers into the formulas.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Bransford, J. D., Brown, A. L., & Cocking, R. (Eds). (2000).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Mayer, R. (2008).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Saxe, G. B. (1991).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Introduction

    Psychological science has much to contribute to enhancing teaching and learning in the classroom.

    “Psychological science has much to contribute to enhancing teaching and learning in the classroom.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Teaching and learning are intricately linked to social and behavioral factors of human development, including cognition, motivation, social interaction, and communication.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Relevance for Teachers

    When teachers attribute a student's poor performance to controllable and modifiable causes, such as lack of effort or poor choice of strategy, they afford students the expectation or hope that things can be different in the future.

    “When teachers attribute a student's poor performance to controllable and modifiable causes, such as lack of effort or poor choice of strategy, they afford students the expectation or hope that things can be different in the future.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given
    § Relevance for Teachers

    Simply telling students they need to think differently or using teaching strategies for inducing conceptual growth will generally not lead to substantial change in student thinking.

    “Simply telling students they need to think differently or using teaching strategies for inducing conceptual growth will generally not lead to substantial change in student thinking.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given
    § Relevance for Teachers

    Attributing failure to low ability often leads students to give up when they encounter failure.

    “Attributing failure to low ability often leads students to give up when they encounter failure.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Explanation

    Learning consists of either adding to existing student knowledge (conceptual growth) or transforming or revising student knowledge (conceptual change).

    “Accordingly, learning consists of either adding to existing student knowledge, known as conceptual growth , or transforming or revising student knowledge, known as conceptual change .”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Explanation

    Achieving conceptual change in students is far more challenging for teachers than inducing conceptual growth because misconceptions tend to be entrenched in reasoning and resistant to change.

    “Achieving conceptual change in students is far more challenging for teachers than inducing conceptual growth because misconceptions tend to be entrenched in reasoning and resistant to change.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationnone given
    § Explanation

    Students who hold that intelligence is a fixed trait tend to adhere to the entity theory of intelligence.

    “Those who hold the opposite view, that intelligence is a fixed trait, tend to adhere to the 'entity' theory of intelligence.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given
    § Explanation

    Cognition can be interpersonally based, such that student reasoning can be facilitated to more advanced levels when students interact with more capable others and/or with more advanced materials.

    “Supporters of cognitive approaches point out that cognition can be interpersonally based, such that student reasoning can be facilitated to more advanced levels when students interact with more capable others and/ or with more advanced materials.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given
    § Introduction

    The Top 20 principles are the most important principles from psychology that would be of greatest use in preK-12 classroom teaching and learning.

    “We present here the most important principles from psychology-the 'Top 20'-that would be of greatest use in the context of preK-12 classroom teaching and learning”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The national blueprint publications analyzed represent the broader community of educators' views on what teachers are expected to know or be able to do.
    • Rests on an assumption: The modified Delphi process and cross-checking against national blueprint documents are sufficient to identify the most important principles from psychology for preK-12 teaching and learning.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given
    § Explanation

    Students are capable of higher level thinking and behavior when (a) there is some biological base (early competency) for knowledge in the domain, (b) they already have some familiarity or expertise with a knowledge domain, (c) they interact with more capable others or challenging materials, and (d) in sociocultural contexts with which they are familiar through experience.

    “In sum, students are capable of higher level thinking and behavior when (a) there is some biological base (early competency) for knowledge in the domain, (b) they already have some familiarity or expertise with a knowledge domain, (c) they interact with more capable others or challenging materials, and (d) in sociocultural contexts with which they are familiar through experience.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given
    § Explanation

    Infants have been found to have early, possibly native, competencies (biologically based) in certain domains.

    “Infants have been found to have early, possibly native, competencies (biologically based) in certain domains.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Explanation

    Students holding the entity view focus on performance goals and believe they continually need to demonstrate and prove their intelligence, making them more hesitant to take on highly challenging tasks and more vulnerable to negative feedback than students holding an incremental view.

    “Students holding to the latter view focus on performance goals and believe they continually need to demonstrate and prove their intelligence, making them more hesitant to take on highly challenging tasks and more vulnerable to negative feedback than students holding an incremental view.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductown data
    § Methodology

    The coalition used a modified Delphi process to identify the most important of the 45 principles.

    “To identify the most important of the 45 principles/ kernels, we used a modified Delphi process”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Institute of Medicine

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • Rests on an assumption: The modified Delphi process and cross-checking against national blueprint documents are sufficient to identify the most important principles from psychology for preK-12 teaching and learning.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Explanation

    Deliberate practice involves attention, rehearsal, and repetition over time and leads to new knowledge or skills that can later be developed into more complex knowledge and skills.

    “Instead, deliberate practice involves attention, rehearsal, and repetition over time and leads to new knowledge or skills that can later be developed into more complex knowledge and skills.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Campitelli, G., & Gobet, F. (2011).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Dunlosky, J., Rawson, K. A., Marsh, E. J., Nathan, M. J., & Willingham, D. T. (2013). source
    • cites Roediger, H. L. (2013).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Relevance for Teachers

    The value of testing or any kind of practice exercise is enhanced by conducting them at spaced intervals (distributive practice) and giving them frequently.

    “The value of testing or any kind of practice exercise is enhanced by conducting them at spaced intervals (distributive practice) and giving them frequently.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Campitelli, G., & Gobet, F. (2011).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Dunlosky, J., Rawson, K. A., Marsh, E. J., Nathan, M. J., & Willingham, D. T. (2013). source
    • cites Roediger, H. L. (2013).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § Explanation

    To be retained more permanently, information must be transferred into long-term memory, which by definition is of relatively long duration, has very large capacity, and is highly organized.

    “To be retained more permanently, information must be transferred into long-term memory , which by definition is of relatively long duration (e.g., decades), has very large capacity, and is highly organized (e.g., categorized).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Campitelli, G., & Gobet, F. (2011).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Dunlosky, J., Rawson, K. A., Marsh, E. J., Nathan, M. J., & Willingham, D. T. (2013). source
    • cites Roediger, H. L. (2013).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Explanation

    Feedback that is occasional and perfunctory (e.g., saying 'good job') is neither clear nor explanatory and does not increase student motivation or understanding.

    “Feedback that is occasional and perfunctory (e.g., saying 'good job') is neither clear nor explanatory and does not increase student motivation or understanding.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Brookhart, S. M. (2008).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Ericsson, A. K., Krampe, R. T., & Tesch-Romer, C. (1993).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Gobet, F., & Campitelli, G. (2007).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Explanation

    The transfer of information from short-term to long-term memory is accomplished through different strategies, and practice is key to this transfer process.

    “The transfer of information from shortterm to long-term memory is accomplished through different strategies, and practice is key to this transfer process.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Campitelli, G., & Gobet, F. (2011).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Dunlosky, J., Rawson, K. A., Marsh, E. J., Nathan, M. J., & Willingham, D. T. (2013). source
    • cites Roediger, H. L. (2013).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Relevance for Teachers

    Tests (or quizzes) that are given immediately after a learning exercise give students opportunities to practice, and they tend to do well because the learning is recent.

    “Tests (or quizzes) that are given immediately after a learning exercise give students opportunities to practice, and they tend to do well because the learning is recent.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Campitelli, G., & Gobet, F. (2011).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Dunlosky, J., Rawson, K. A., Marsh, E. J., Nathan, M. J., & Willingham, D. T. (2013). source
    • cites Roediger, H. L. (2013).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Relevance for Teachers

    Providing feedback in a timely way (e.g., as quickly as possible after a quiz) assists learning and is usually more effective than providing delayed feedback.

    “Providing feedback in a timely way (e.g., as quickly as possible after a quiz) assists learning and is usually more effective than providing delayed feedback.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Brookhart, S. M. (2008).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Ericsson, A. K., Krampe, R. T., & Tesch-Romer, C. (1993).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Gobet, F., & Campitelli, G. (2007).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation
    § What motivates students?

    Students tend to enjoy learning and to do better when they are more intrinsically rather than extrinsically motivated to achieve.

    “Principle 9 Students tend to enjoy learning and to do better when they are more intrinsically rather than extrinsically motivated to achieve.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Anderman, E. M., & Anderman, L. H. (2014).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Brophy, J. (2004).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Brophy, J., Wiseman, D. G., & Hunt, G. H. (2008).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Relevance for Teachers

    When students are learning a new task or struggling with an existing one, frequent praise following small degrees of improvement is very important, and when progress is evident, encouragement to persist can matter a great deal.

    “When students are learning a new task or struggling with an existing one, frequent praise following small degrees of improvement is very important, and when progress is evident, encouragement to persist can matter a great deal.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Brookhart, S. M. (2008).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Ericsson, A. K., Krampe, R. T., & Tesch-Romer, C. (1993).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Gobet, F., & Campitelli, G. (2007).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Explanation

    Being able to identify problems, generate potential solutions, evaluate the effectiveness of those strategies, and then communicate with others about the value of the solutions are all highly relevant to educational success, workforce effectiveness, and quality of life.

    “Being able to identify problems, generate potential solutions, evaluate the effectiveness of those strategies, and then communicate with others about the value of the solutions are all highly relevant to educational success, workforce effectiveness, and quality of life.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Beghetto, R. A. (2013).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Kaufman, J. C., & Beghetto, R. A. (2013).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Plucker, J., Beghetto, R. A., & Dow, G. (2004).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation
    § References

    Students' self-regulation assists learning, and self-regulatory skills can be taught.

    “Principle 7 Students' self-regulation assists learning, and self-regulatory skills can be taught.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Diamond, A., Barnett, W. S., Thomas, J., & Munro, S. (2007, Nov. 30).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Galinsky, E. (2010).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Wolters, C. A. (2011).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Premisecitation
    § Explanation

    Creativity-defined as the generation of ideas that are new and useful in a particular situation-is a critical skill for students in the information-driven economy of the 21st century.

    “Creativity-defined as the generation of ideas that are new and useful in a particular situation-is a critical skill for students in the information-driven economy of the 21st century.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Beghetto, R. A. (2013).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Kaufman, J. C., & Beghetto, R. A. (2013).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Plucker, J., Beghetto, R. A., & Dow, G. (2004).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § Explanation

    Creative approaches to teaching can inspire enthusiasm and joy in the learning process by increasing student engagement and modeling of real-world application of knowledge across domains.

    “Creative approaches to teaching can inspire enthusiasm and joy in the learning process by increasing student engagement and modeling of real-world application of knowledge across domains.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Beghetto, R. A. (2013).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Kaufman, J. C., & Beghetto, R. A. (2013).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Plucker, J., Beghetto, R. A., & Dow, G. (2004).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Explanation

    Contrary to the conventional wisdom that creativity is a stable trait, creative thinking can be developed and nurtured in students, making it an important outcome of the learning process for students and educators.

    “Contrary to the conventional wisdom that creativity is a stable trait (you either have it or you don't), creative thinking can be developed and nurtured in students, making it an important outcome of the learning process for students and educators.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Beghetto, R. A. (2013).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Kaufman, J. C., & Beghetto, R. A. (2013).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Plucker, J., Beghetto, R. A., & Dow, G. (2004).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Relevance for Teachers

    Feedback on quizzes and practice tests is helpful to students and appears to improve classroom performance in the future.

    “Feedback on quizzes and practice tests is helpful to students and appears to improve classroom performance in the future.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Brookhart, S. M. (2008).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Ericsson, A. K., Krampe, R. T., & Tesch-Romer, C. (1993).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Gobet, F., & Campitelli, G. (2007).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Explanation

    Self-regulatory skills may increase over time, but they are not subject only to maturation.

    “Although these skills may increase over time, they are not subject only to maturation.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Diamond, A., Barnett, W. S., Thomas, J., & Munro, S. (2007, Nov. 30).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Galinsky, E. (2010).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Wolters, C. A. (2011).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Relevance for Teachers

    The creative process is often misconstrued as being purely spontaneous or even frivolous, yet extensive research provides evidence that creativity and innovation are the result of disciplined thinking.

    “The creative process is often misconstrued as being purely spontaneous or even frivolous, yet extensive research provides evidence that creativity and innovation are the result of disciplined thinking.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Beghetto, R. A. (2013).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Kaufman, J. C., & Beghetto, R. A. (2013).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Plucker, J., Beghetto, R. A., & Dow, G. (2004).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Premisereasoning
    § Relevance for Teachers

    It is important to teach students that some tasks, even tasks that are necessary to master, might be uninteresting at first yet require consistent, sometimes tedious, engagement for learning.

    “It is important to teach students that some tasks, even tasks that are necessary to master, might be uninteresting at first yet require consistent, sometimes tedious, engagement for learning.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Anderman, E. M., & Anderman, L. H. (2014).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Brophy, J. (2004).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Brophy, J., Wiseman, D. G., & Hunt, G. H. (2008).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Explanation

    Students who are more extrinsically motivated may be so focused on the reward that learning is superficial, or they may become discouraged if the pressures are too high.

    “On the other hand, students who are more extrinsically motivated may be so focused on the reward (e.g., getting a high grade) that learning is superficial (e.g., the student may resort to shortcuts such as skimming the reading for specific terms rather than absorbing the entire lesson), or they may become discouraged if the pressures are too high.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Anderman, E. M., & Anderman, L. H. (2014).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Brophy, J. (2004).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Brophy, J., Wiseman, D. G., & Hunt, G. H. (2008).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation
    § References

    Students persist in the face of challenging tasks and process information more deeply when they adopt mastery goals rather than performance goals.

    “Principle 10 Students persist in the face of challenging tasks and process information more deeply when they adopt mastery goals rather than performance goals.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Ames, C. (1992).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Anderman, L. H., & Anderman, E. M. (2009).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2002).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning
    § Explanation

    Intrinsically motivated students feel more self-efficacious and are not burdened by achievement anxiety.

    “They also feel more self-efficacious and are not burdened by achievement anxiety.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Anderman, E. M., & Anderman, L. H. (2014).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Brophy, J. (2004).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Brophy, J., Wiseman, D. G., & Hunt, G. H. (2008).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning
    § Explanation

    As more basic skills become automatic, the tasks require less effort and are more enjoyable.

    “As more basic skills become automatic, the tasks require less effort and are more enjoyable.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Anderman, E. M., & Anderman, L. H. (2014).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Brophy, J. (2004).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Brophy, J., Wiseman, D. G., & Hunt, G. H. (2008).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning
    § Explanation

    As students develop increasing competence, the knowledge and skills that have been developed provide a foundation to support the more complex tasks, which become less effortful and more enjoyable.

    “As students develop increasing competence, the knowledge and skills that have been developed provide a foundation to support the more complex tasks, which become less effortful and more enjoyable.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Anderman, E. M., & Anderman, L. H. (2014).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Brophy, J. (2004).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Brophy, J., Wiseman, D. G., & Hunt, G. H. (2008).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Explanation

    Externally motivated students may disengage once the external rewards are no longer provided, whereas intrinsically motivated students show more long-lived mastery of learning goals.

    “Furthermore, externally motivated students may disengage once the external rewards are no longer provided, whereas intrinsically motivated students show more long-lived mastery of learning goals.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Anderman, E. M., & Anderman, L. H. (2014).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Brophy, J. (2004).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Brophy, J., Wiseman, D. G., & Hunt, G. H. (2008).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Explanation

    Intrinsically motivated task engagement is not only more enjoyable, it is positively related to more enduring learning, achievement, and perceived competence and is negatively related to anxiety.

    “Nonetheless, intrinsically motivated task engagement is not only more enjoyable, it is positively related to more enduring learning, achievement, and perceived competence and is negatively related to anxiety.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Anderman, E. M., & Anderman, L. H. (2014).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Brophy, J. (2004).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Brophy, J., Wiseman, D. G., & Hunt, G. H. (2008).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Explanation

    Teachers appear to provide a more supportive emotional climate, clearer feedback, more attention, more instructional time, and more learning opportunities overall for their high-expectancy versus low-expectancy students.

    “For example, teachers appear to provide a more supportive emotional climate, clearer feedback, more attention, more instructional time, and more learning opportunities overall for their high-expectancy versus low-expectancy students.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Jussim, L., Eccles, J., & Madon, S. (1996).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Jussim, L., & Harber, K. D. (2005).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Jussim. L., Robustelli, S., & Cain, T. (2009).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation
    § References

    Teachers' expectations about their students affect students' opportunities to learn, their motivation, and their learning outcomes.

    “Principle 11 Teachers' expectations about their students affect students' opportunities to learn, their motivation, and their learning outcomes.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Jussim, L., Eccles, J., & Madon, S. (1996).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Jussim, L., & Harber, K. D. (2005).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Jussim. L., Robustelli, S., & Cain, T. (2009).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Explanation

    Short-term, or proximal, goals are more motivating than long-term, or distal, goals because it is easier to judge progress toward proximal goals.

    “First, short-term, or proximal, goals are more motivating than long-term, or distal, goals because it is easier to judge progress toward proximal goals.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (2002)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • Rests on an assumption: At least until middle adolescence, students tend to be less skilled at thinking concretely about the distant future.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Relevance for Teachers

    High-achieving students often enjoy public recognition of their accomplishments and should be praised when their level of achievement exceeds previous personal levels, while those who are struggling or who worry about appearing 'dumb' can be discouraged by social comparisons.

    “Whereas high-achieving students often enjoy public recognition of their accomplishments and should be praised when their level of achievement exceeds previous personal levels, those who are struggling or who worry about appearing 'dumb' can be discouraged by social comparisons.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Ames, C. (1992).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Anderman, L. H., & Anderman, E. M. (2009).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2002).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Explanation

    Most teacher expectations about individual student ability are based on students' past academic performance and, for the most part, may be an accurate representation.

    “Most teacher expectations about individual student ability are based on students' past academic performance and, for the most part, may be an accurate representation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Jussim, L., Eccles, J., & Madon, S. (1996).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Jussim, L., & Harber, K. D. (2005).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Jussim. L., Robustelli, S., & Cain, T. (2009).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Premisecitation
    § Relevance for Teachers

    Praise like 'perfect,' 'brilliant,' and 'amazing' that provides no specific information to the student about what was done so well is best avoided because it does not promote guidance for replicating high-quality work.

    “Praise like 'perfect,' 'brilliant,' and 'amazing' that provides no specific information to the student about what was done so well is best avoided because it does not promote guidance for replicating high-quality work.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Ames, C. (1992).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Anderman, L. H., & Anderman, E. M. (2009).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2002).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Explanation

    Emotional well-being is important to interpersonal relationships, social development, and overall mental health.

    “It is also important to interpersonal relationships, social development, and overall mental health.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Jain, S., Buka, S. L., Subramanian, S. V., & Molnar, B. E. (2012)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given
    § Relevance for Teachers

    The classroom climate can influence students' sense of security and acceptance, perceptions of social support, sense of control, and overall emotional well-being.

    “Concurrently, the classroom climate can influence students' sense of security and acceptance, perceptions of social support, sense of control, and overall emotional well-being.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Explanation

    Being emotionally healthy depends on understanding, expressing, and regulating or controlling one's own emotions, as well as perceiving and understanding others' emotions (empathy).

    “Being emotionally healthy depends on understanding, expressing, and regulating or controlling one's own emotions, as well as perceiving and understanding others' emotions (empathy).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites CASEL (Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning). (2012)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Explanation

    Student behavior that does not conform to classroom rules or teacher expectations cannot simply be regarded as a distraction to be eliminated before instruction can take place.

    “Student behavior that does not conform to classroom rules or teacher expectations cannot simply be regarded as a distraction to be eliminated before instruction can take place.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Explanation

    Summative assessments are used to produce an overall judgment of student learning progress or the effectiveness of educational programs.

    “Summative assessments are used to produce an overall judgment of student learning progress or the effectiveness of educational programs.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Sheppard, L. A. (2006)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Explanation

    Formative assessments take place before or during instruction, can be 'on the fly,' and have the explicit purpose of improving current learning.

    “Formative assessments take place before or during instruction, can be 'on the fly,' and have the explicit purpose of improving current learning.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Heritage, M. (2007)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § Explanation

    Formative assessments are used to guide and shape classroom instruction directly.

    “Formative assessments are used to guide and shape classroom instruction directly.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Black, P., Harrison, C., Lee, C., Marshall, B., & Wiliam, D. (2003)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § Relevance for Teachers

    On the schoolwide level, these same principles can be used to clarify expectations and reward positive behavior through programs such as Positive Behavior Interventions and Supports (PBIS).

    “On the schoolwide level, these same principles can be used to clarify expectations and reward positive behavior through programs such as Positive Behavior Interventions and Supports (PBIS).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Sugai, G., & Simonsen, B. (2015)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Relevance for Teachers

    Effective student communication requires teaching and practice of component skills.

    “Effective student communication requires teaching and practice of component skills.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Students profit from a predictable structure and high expectations for both academic achievement and classroom behavior.

    Students profit from a predictable structure and high expectations for both academic achievement and classroom behavior.

    “Students profit from a predictable structure and high expectations for both academic achievement and classroom behavior.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Evertson, C. M., & Emmer, E. T. (2009)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given
    § Relevance for Teachers

    The emotional well-being of students can influence the quality of their participation in the teaching-learning process, their interpersonal relationships, the effectiveness of their communication, and their responsiveness to classroom climate.

    “The emotional well-being of students can influence the quality of their participation in the teaching-learning process, their interpersonal relationships, the effectiveness of their communication, and their responsiveness to classroom climate.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Relevance for Teachers

    A safe and secure environment, both physical and social, and shared classroom culture provide the foundation for healthy teacher-student and peer relationships.

    “A safe and secure environment, both physical and social, and shared classroom culture (e.g., ensuring that everyone in the classroom is clear about relevant vocabulary, values, and norms) provide the foundation for healthy teacher-student and peer relationships.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Relevance for Teachers

    One of the foundational skills for the more complex interactions described above is the development of clear and thoughtful communication.

    “One of the foundational skills for the more complex interactions described above is the development of clear and thoughtful communication.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Premisecitation
    § Explanation

    Support is essential.

    “Yet we also know that support is essential.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Evertson, C. M., & Emmer, E. T. (2009)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Students profit from a predictable structure and high expectations for both academic achievement and classroom behavior.

    Balancing structure and support is central to culturally responsive classroom management and is associated with lower levels of suspension and bullying when applied at the school level.

    “Balancing structure and support is central to culturally responsive classroom management and is associated with lower levels of suspension and bullying when applied at the school level.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Weinstein, C., Tomlinson-Clarke, S., & Curran, M. (2004)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § How to assess student progress?

    Formative and summative assessments are both important and useful but require different approaches and interpretations.

    “Principle 18 Formative and summative assessments are both important and useful but require different approaches and interpretations.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Black, P., Harrison, C., Lee, C., Marshall, B., & Wiliam, D. (2003)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Explanation

    Students need to have a clear understanding of the behavioral rules and expectations of the classroom, and these expectations must be communicated directly and frequently and consistently enforced.

    “In terms of structure, students need to have a clear understanding of the behavioral rules and expectations of the classroom, and these expectations must be communicated directly and frequently and consistently enforced.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Evertson, C. M., & Emmer, E. T. (2009)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Students profit from a predictable structure and high expectations for both academic achievement and classroom behavior.

    Maintaining a high ratio of positive statements and rewards to negative consequences, as well as expressing respect for all students and their heritage, builds trust in the classroom.

    “Maintaining a high ratio of positive statements and rewards to negative consequences, as well as expressing respect for all students and their heritage, builds trust in the classroom.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Evertson, C. M., & Emmer, E. T. (2009)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Explanation

    Appreciating the potential influence of these contexts on learners can enhance the effectiveness of instruction and communication across contexts (e.g., between teachers and parents).

    “Appreciating the potential influence of these contexts on learners can enhance the effectiveness of instruction and communication across contexts (e.g., between teachers and parents).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § References

    Effective classroom management is based on (a) setting and communicating high expectations, (b) consistently nurturing positive relationships, and (c) providing a high level of student support.

    “Principle 17 Effective classroom management is based on (a) setting and communicating high expectations, (b) consistently nurturing positive relationships, and (c) providing a high level of student support.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Evertson, C. M., & Emmer, E. T. (2009)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Weinstein, C., Tomlinson-Clarke, S., & Curran, M. (2004)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § References

    Interpersonal relationships and communication are critical to both the teaching-learning process and the social-emotional development of students.

    “Principle 14 Interpersonal relationships and communication are critical to both the teaching-learning process and the social-emotional development of students.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Pianta, R. C., & Stuhlman, M. W. (2004)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Rimm-Kaufman, S. E., Baroody, A. E., Larsen, A. A., Curby, T. W., & Abry, T. (2015)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Explanation

    Emotional well-being is integral to successful, everyday functioning in the classroom and influences academic performance and learning.

    “Emotional well-being is integral to successful, everyday functioning in the classroom and influences academic performance and learning.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Hagelskamp, C., Brackett, M. A., Rivers, S. E., & Salovey, P. (2013)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation
    § Relevance for Teachers

    A range of behavioral principles, including praise of appropriate behavior, differential reinforcement, correction, and planned consequences, can be used to consistently teach and remind students of their expectations.

    “A range of behavioral principles, including praise of appropriate behavior, differential reinforcement (desired behaviors or responses are reinforced and inappropriate behaviors or responses are ignored), correction, and planned consequences, can be used to consistently teach and remind students of their expectations.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Sprick, R. (2006)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Students profit from a predictable structure and high expectations for both academic achievement and classroom behavior.

    A safe and well-arranged physical environment, a predictable schedule, and rules that are clearly explained and consistently enforced all contribute to a safe and orderly learning climate that reduces distraction and keeps the focus on academic instruction.

    “A safe and well-arranged physical environment, a predictable schedule, and rules that are clearly explained and consistently enforced all contribute to a safe and orderly learning climate that reduces distraction and keeps the focus on academic instruction.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Evertson, C. M., & Emmer, E. T. (2009)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Explanation

    Valid assessment requires saying clearly what an assessment is and is not supposed to measure and requires evidence of this for all test takers.

    “Valid assessment requires saying clearly what an assessment is and is not supposed to measure and requires evidence of this for all test takers.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites American Educational Research Association, American Psychological Association, & National Council on Measurement in Education. (2014)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Explanation

    The approach used to collect information is likely to differ between the two types of assessment as well, given their different purposes.

    “The approach used to collect information is likely to differ between the two types of assessment as well, given their different purposes.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § Explanation

    A reliable assessment is one whose results are consistent indicators of student knowledge, skills, and abilities.

    “A reliable assessment is one whose results are consistent indicators of student knowledge, skills, and abilities.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Smith, J. K. (2003)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § Explanation

    Summative assessments, given their purpose of evaluating progress against a benchmark, are more likely to be high-stakes, standardized large-scale assessments that evaluate individual work to yield an overall score or performance-level designation.

    “Summative assessments, given their purpose of evaluating progress against a benchmark, are more likely to be high-stakes, standardized large-scale assessments that evaluate individual work to yield an overall score or performance-level designation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Sheppard, L. A. (2006)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § Explanation

    Both formative and summative assessments can be developed by teachers or those outside of the classroom-for example, by a testing company on behalf of a state agency.

    “Both formative and summative assessments can be developed by teachers or those outside of the classroom-for example, by a testing company on behalf of a state agency.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Council of Chief State School Officers (CCSSO). (2008)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Relevance for Teachers

    Data gathered from any assessment are best interpreted in light of their suitability for addressing specific questions about students or educational programs, their appropriateness for individuals from a variety of different backgrounds and educational circumstances, and the intended and unintended consequences that result from using the assessment.

    “Data gathered from any assessment are best interpreted in light of their suitability for addressing specific questions about students or educational programs, their appropriateness for individuals from a variety of different backgrounds and educational circumstances, and the intended and unintended consequences that result from using the assessment.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites American Educational Research Association, American Psychological Association, & National Council on Measurement in Education. (2014)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Explanation

    Tests showing real, relevant differences are fair; tests showing differences that are unrelated to the purpose of the test are not.

    “Tests showing real, relevant differences are fair; tests showing differences that are unrelated to the purpose of the test are not.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites American Educational Research Association, American Psychological Association, & National Council on Measurement in Education. (2014)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § Explanation

    Scores from any assessment should generally be used only for the specific purposes for which they were designed.

    “Scores from any assessment should generally be used only for the specific purposes for which they were designed.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites American Educational Research Association, American Psychological Association, & National Council on Measurement in Education. (2014)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § Explanation

    There are clear standards for judging the quality of assessments of any type.

    “It is important to remember, however, that there are clear standards for judging the quality of assessments of any type.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites American Educational Research Association, American Psychological Association, & National Council on Measurement in Education. (2014)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Explanation

    Individual test takers must be motivated to show what they can actually do; otherwise, school personnel cannot tell if student learning is being measured or if what is being measured is the degree of effort put into taking the test.

    “Further, individual test takers must be motivated to show what they can actually do. Otherwise, school personnel cannot tell if student learning is being measured or if what is being measured is the degree of effort put into taking the test.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites American Educational Research Association, American Psychological Association, & National Council on Measurement in Education. (2014)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § Explanation

    The meaning of assessment outcomes depends on clear, appropriate, and fair interpretation.

    “The meaning of assessment outcomes depends on clear, appropriate, and fair interpretation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites American Educational Research Association, American Psychological Association, & National Council on Measurement in Education. (2014)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § Explanation

    Overall, the goal of both types of assessments is fundamentally the same-to produce valid, fair, useful, and reliable sources of information.

    “Overall, the goal of both types of assessments is fundamentally the same-to produce valid, fair, useful, and reliable sources of information.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites American Educational Research Association, American Psychological Association, & National Council on Measurement in Education. (2014)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § Explanation

    The validity of an assessment tool is not simply a number; it is a judgment, over time and across a variety of situations, about the inferences that can be drawn from test data, including the intended or unintended consequences of using the test.

    “The validity of an assessment tool is not simply a number. It is a judgment, over time and across a variety of situations, about the inferences that can be drawn from test data, including the intended or unintended consequences of using the test.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Moss, P. A. (2003)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § Explanation

    Scores should not be affected by chance factors associated with, for example, student motivation or interest as it relates to a given set of test questions, variations in testing conditions, or other things that are not part of what test givers intend to measure.

    “Scores should not be affected by chance factors associated with, for example, student motivation or interest as it relates to a given set of test questions, variations in testing conditions, or other things that are not part of what test givers intend to measure.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Smith, J. K. (2003)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given
    § Relevance for Teachers

    Effective teaching depends heavily on teachers being informed consumers of educational research, effective interpreters of data for classroom use, and good communicators with students and their families about assessment data and decisions that affect students.

    “Effective teaching depends heavily on teachers being informed consumers of educational research, effective interpreters of data for classroom use, and good communicators with students and their families about assessment data and decisions that affect students.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Relevance for Teachers

    Because both higher- and lower-stakes tests can have significant impact on students, it is important to make careful interpretations of the results of either type of test.

    “Because both higherand lower-stakes tests can have significant impact on students, it is important to make careful interpretations of the results of either type of test.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Explanation

    In general, formative assessments are more likely to be developed by teachers, and large-scale, high-stakes assessments are more likely to be developed by an external organization.

    “In general, however, formative assessments are more likely to be developed by teachers, and large-scale, high-stakes assessments are more likely to be developed by an external organization.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Council of Chief State School Officers (CCSSO). (2008)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § Explanation

    Test users need to be able to infer from a test score that it accurately reflects student learning and not other factors.

    “For example, test users need to be able to infer from a test score that it accurately reflects student learning and not other factors.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Moss, P. A. (2003)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Explanation

    Tests intended to rank order students for a competition may be valid, fair, and useful for that purpose, but at the same time these tests would likely be misleading for determining the strengths and weaknesses of each individual student's mastery of material in a particular subject-matter area.

    “For example, tests intended to rank order students for a competition may be valid, fair, and useful for that purpose, but at the same time these tests would likely be misleading for determining the strengths and weaknesses of each individual student's mastery of material in a particular subject-matter area.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Explanation

    Summative assessments measure learning at a particular point, usually at the end of a unit of study, semester, or academic year, and by design provide limited opportunities to influence current learning activities.

    “Summative assessments measure learning at a particular point, usually at the end of a unit of study, semester, or academic year, and by design provide limited opportunities to influence current learning activities.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Sheppard, L. A. (2006)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Relevance for Teachers

    Such awareness enables teachers to communicate caveats, such as the imperfect reliability of scores and the importance of using multiple sources of evidence for high-stakes decisions.

    “Such awareness also enables teachers to communicate caveats, such as the imperfect reliability of scores (see more on this in Principle 19) and the importance of using multiple sources of evidence for high-stakes decisions.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation
    § References

    Making sense of assessment data depends on clear, appropriate, and fair interpretation.

    “Principle 20 Making sense of assessment data depends on clear, appropriate, and fair interpretation.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites American Educational Research Association, American Psychological Association, & National Council on Measurement in Education. (2014)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Relevance for Teachers

    Awareness of the strengths and limitations of any assessment is critical.

    “Awareness of the strengths and limitations of any assessment is critical.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § Explanation

    Fairness is a component of validity.

    “Fairness is a component of validity.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites American Educational Research Association, American Psychological Association, & National Council on Measurement in Education. (2014)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § Relevance for Teachers

    Tests that are valid for one use or setting may not be valid for another.

    “Being mindful that tests that are valid for one use or setting may not be valid for another.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites American Educational Research Association, American Psychological Association, & National Council on Measurement in Education. (2014)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

105 of 105

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Teaching and learning are intricately linked to social and behavioral factors of human development, including cognition, motivation, social interaction, and communication.

    “Teaching and learning are intricately linked to social and behavioral factors of human development, including cognition, motivation, social interaction, and communication.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The national blueprint publications analyzed represent the broader community of educators' views on what teachers are expected to know or be able to do.

    “Several national blueprint publications related to teaching were analyzed to assess whether each of these principles also had been identified by the broader community of educators as critical to teacher practice.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The modified Delphi process and cross-checking against national blueprint documents are sufficient to identify the most important principles from psychology for preK-12 teaching and learning.

    “To identify the most important of the 45 principles/ kernels, we used a modified Delphi process”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    At least until middle adolescence, students tend to be less skilled at thinking concretely about the distant future.

    “Developmentally, at least until middle adolescence, students tend to be less skilled at thinking concretely about the distant future.”
4 of 4

Cites

The publisher hasn’t deposited this paper’s reference list.

Research works printed but not linked: 3

  1. Benassi, V. A., Overson, C. E., & Hakala, C. M. (Eds.). (2014). Applying the science of learning in education: Infusing psychological science into the curriculum. Retrieved from the Society for the Teaching of Psychology website: http://teachpsych.org /resources/documents/ebooks/asle2014.pdf
  2. Cuff, P. A., & Vanselow, N. A. (Eds.). (2004). Enhancing the behavioral and social sciences in medical school curricula. Washington DC: National Academies Press.
  3. Woolfolk, A. (2013). Educational psychology (12th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Education, C. F. P. I. S. A.
Venue
PsycEXTRA Dataset
Publisher
American Psychological Association (APA)
Published
2015
DOI
10.1037/e523402015-001
OpenAlex
W4242511378
Cited by
64
References
0
Citations by year
2025: 3 · 2024: 5 · 2023: 7 · 2022: 12 · 2021: 10 · 2020: 2 · 2019: 8 · 2018: 8 · 2017: 4 · 2016: 4 · 2015: 1
Type
dataset
Language
en
Open access
closed
Locations
PsycEXTRA Dataset (publishedVersion)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Education › Early Childhood Education and Development
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neuroscience, Education and Cognitive Function
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
Keywords
psychology of learning, teaching principles, K-12 education, instructional design, student learning, educational psychology

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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-21.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-21.

Cited sources are checked by gpt-6-sol.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

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