The DOI matches its Crossref record; 47 of the 47 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Consequences of prejudice against the null hypothesis.
Abstract
The consequences of prejudice against accepting the null hypothesis were examined through (a) a mathematical model intended to stimulate the research-publication process and (b) case studies of apparent erroneous rejec-tions of the null hypothesis in published psychological research. The input parameters for the model characterize investigators ' probabilities of selecting a problem for which the null hypothesis is true, of reporting, following up on, or abandoning research when data do or do not reject the null hypothesis, and they characterize editors ' probabilities of publishing manuscripts concluding in favor of or against the null hypothesis. With estimates of the input parameters based on a questionnaire survey of a sample of social psychologists, the model output indicates a dysfunctional research-publication system. Particularly, the model indicates that there may be relatively few publications on problems for which the null hypothesis is (at least to a reasonable approximation) true, and of these, a high proportion will erroneously reject the null hypothesis. The case studies provide additional support for this conclusion. Accordingly, it is
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“The bias against negative results appears to be a consequence of both editors and reviewers finding them less compelling for publication and from authors themselves not trying to publish them 8-12”
From Initial evidence of research quality of registered reports compared with the standard publishing model (2021) · cites this paper as [11]
In the citing paper
“Positive results -- finding that a treatment is effective or that there is a relationship between two variables -- are more likely to be published than negative results 6-12 .”
From Initial evidence of research quality of registered reports compared with the standard publishing model (2021) · cites this paper as [11]
In the citing paper
“Theoretical analyses point to a system of incentives that prioritizes innovation over verification, leading to infrequent efforts to replicate findings and to behaviors that could reduce the replicability of published findings such as selective reporting, presenting exploratory findings as confirmatory tests, and failures of documentation, transparency, and sharing”
From Investigating the replicability of preclinical cancer biology (2021) · cites this paper as Greenwald, 1975
In the citing paper
“Research that produces novel results, statistically significant results (that is, typically p < 0.05) and seemingly 'clean' results is more likely to be published 2,3 .”
From Power failure: why small sample size undermines the reliability of neuroscience (2013) · cites this paper as [3]
In the citing paper
“An important qualification about this result is the possibility that the original studies have inflated effect sizes due to publication, selection, reporting, or other biases ( 9, 1223 ).”
From Estimating the reproducibility of psychological science (2015) · cites this paper as [16]
In the citing paper
“Potentially problematic practices include selective reporting, selective analysis, and insufficient specification of the conditions necessary or sufficient to obtain the results ( 1223 ).”
From Estimating the reproducibility of psychological science (2015) · cites this paper as [16]
In the citing paper
“There is good evidence that low power of research designs combined with publication bias favoring positive results over negative results produces a literature with upwardly biased effect sizes ( 14, 16, 30, 31 ).”
From Estimating the reproducibility of psychological science (2015) · cites this paper as [16]
In the citing paper
“Concerns about reproducibility are widespread across disciplines ( 921 ).”
From Estimating the reproducibility of psychological science (2015) · cites this paper as [16]
Citations
Cites
Nonparametric Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences
Guitton, H., & Siegel, S. (1958) · Revue économique · doi:10.2307/3498751 · Cited by 35,279
The Influence of Source Credibility on Communication Effectiveness
Hovland, C. I., & Weiss, W. (1951) · Public Opinion Quarterly · doi:10.1086/266350 · Cited by 3,543
Boneau, C. A., & Hays, W. L. (1966) · The American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.2307/1420739 · Cited by 1,887
The statistical power of abnormal-social psychological research: A review.
Cohen, J. (1962) · The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0045186 · Cited by 1,824
Bayesian statistical inference for psychological research.
Edwards, W., Lindman, H., & Savage, L. J. (1963) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/h0044139 · Cited by 1,734
Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for research on teaching
Campbell, D. T. (1963) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 1,541
Statistical significance in psychological research.
Lykken, D. T. (1968) · Psychological bulletin · doi:10.1037/h0026141 · Cited by 1,363
Artifact in behavioral research
Rosenthal, R., & Rosnow, R. L. (1969) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 1,186
Sterling, T. D. (1959) · Journal of the American Statistical Association · doi:10.1080/01621459.1959.10501497 · Cited by 964
The test of significance in psychological research.
Bakan, D. (1966) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/h0020412 · Cited by 957
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 401–500 of 1,001
High Replicability of Newly-Discovered Social-behavioral Findings is AchievablePreprint
Protzko, J., Krosnick, J. A., Nelson, L. D., Nosek, B. A., Axt, J. R., Berent, M. K., Buttrick, N., DeBell, M., Ebersole, C. R., Lundmark, S., et al. (2020) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/n2a9x · Cited by 48
Environmental Attitude Behaviour Correlations in 21 Countries
Wright, M., & Klÿn, B. (1998) · Cited by 47
Doing good does not preclude doing well: corporate responsibility and financial performance
Lee, J., Graves, S. B., & Waddock, S. A. (2018) · Social Responsibility Journal · doi:10.1108/srj-03-2017-0044 · Cited by 47
Phenomenological control as cold control.
Dienes, Z., Lush, P., Palfi, B., Roseboom, W., Scott, R., Parris, B., Seth, A., & Lovell, M. (2022) · Psychology of Consciousness: Theory, Research, and Practice · doi:10.1037/cns0000230 · Cited by 47
Hierarchical Selection Models With Applications in Meta-Analysis
Silliman, N. (1997) · Journal of the American Statistical Association · doi:10.1080/01621459.1997.10474047 · Cited by 47
“For example, as large studies with significant results are more easily published than small studies with nonsignificant results (Greenwald 1975), this "publication bias" inherent in meta-analyses can give misleading results unless accounted for.”
Resultde Smidt, G. A., & Gorey, K. M. (1997) · Social Work Research · doi:10.1093/swr/21.1.58 · Cited by 47
“Surveys of authors have found a significant relationship between their studies’ outcomes and the decision to publish; studies with positive or non-null results are more likely to be submitted to peer-reviewed journals for publication consideration (Coursol & Wagner, 1986; Greenwald, 1975).”
BackgroundAttributions and sex differences in achievement: Problems and new perspectives
McHugh, M. C., Frieze, I. H., & Hanusa, B. (1982) · Sex Roles · doi:10.1007/bf00287285 · Cited by 47
Peer Review: From “Sacred Ideals” to “Profane Realities”
Johnson, D. R., & Hermanowicz, J. C. (2017) · Higher education · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-48983-4_10 · Cited by 46
Chopra, F., Haaland, I., Roth, C., & Stegmann, A. (2023) · The Economic Journal · doi:10.1093/ej/uead060 · Cited by 57
Levin, J. R., Ferron, J. M., & Gafurov, B. S. (2017) · Journal of School Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jsp.2017.02.003 · Cited by 46
“…in either the traditional group research or single-case research literatures, resulting in a systematic publication bias that unfortunately overestimates the true magnitude of the intervention effect (e.g., Ferguson & Heene, 2012; Greenwald, 1975; Shadish, Zelinsky, Vevea, & Kratochwill, 2016).”
BackgroundObtaining Evidence for No Effect
Dienes, Z. P. (2021) · Collabra Psychology · doi:10.1525/collabra.28202 · Cited by 54
Result-Blind Peer Reviews and Editorial Decisions
Greve, W., Bröder, A., & Erdfelder, E. (2013) · European Psychologist · doi:10.1027/1016-9040/a000144 · Cited by 46
“This message is not new, of course (see Sterling, 1959; Greenwald, 1975; Kupfersmid, 1988), and potential remedies have been proposed that take publication bias into account.”
BackgroundMesquida, C., Murphy, J., Lakens, D., & Warne, J. P. (2023) · Journal of Sports Sciences · doi:10.1080/02640414.2023.2269357 · Cited by 57
“Studies that test a hypothesis are especially sensitive to publication bias, compared to studies that only report descriptive statistics or effect size estimates, as both authors and scientific journals value significant results more than non-significant results (Greenwald, 1975).”
ResultToo Good to be False: Nonsignificant Results Revisited
Hartgerink, C. H. J., Wicherts, J. M., & van Assen, M. A. L. M. (2017) · Collabra Psychology · doi:10.1525/collabra.71 · Cited by 45
“Consequently, publications have become biased by overrepresenting statistically significant results (Greenwald, 1975), which generally results in effect size overestimation in both individual studies (Nuijten, Hartgerink, van Assen, Epskamp, & Wicherts, 2015) and meta-analyses (van Assen, van Aert,…”
ResultShadish, W. R., Doherty, M., & Montgomery, L. M. (1989) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/0272-7358(89)90013-5 · Cited by 45
Television Violence and Viewer Aggression: A Reexamination of the Evidence
Kaplan, R. M., & Singer, R. D. (1976) · Journal of Social Issues · doi:10.1111/j.1540-4560.1976.tb02506.x · Cited by 45
“As Greenwald (1975) acknowledges, journals are biased against publishing articles which fail to reject the null hypothesis at the 5% alpha level.”
BackgroundVize, C. E., Sharpe, B. M., Miller, J. D., Lynam, D., & Soto, C. (2022) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1177/08902070221111857 · Cited by 33
“It is possible that researchers are frequently testing for the presence of interactions between traits but not including them in published work due to a general disinterest in and disinclination towards null findings in psychology (e.g., Ferguson & Brannick, 2012; Greenwald, 1975).”
BackgroundHamilton, S. B., & MacQuiddy, S. L. (1984) · Journal of Clinical Child Psychology · doi:10.1080/15374418409533171 · Cited by 46
Shaffer, J. W., Duszynski, K. R., & Thomas, C. B. (1982) · Journal of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/bf00844805 · Cited by 43
“Consider, for example, the myriad potential relationships investigated worldwide but never reported because of negative results (Bakan, 1966; Greenwald, 1975; McNemar, 1960; Rosenthal, 1979; Shaffer, 1979; Sterling, 1959).”
BackgroundSome Methodological and Statistical “Bugs” in Research on Children’s Learning
Levin, J. R. (1985) · Springer series in cognitive development · doi:10.1007/978-1-4613-9544-7_7 · Cited by 44
Scientific rigor and the art of motorcycle maintenance
Munafò, M., Noble, S., Browne, W. J., Brunner, D., Button, K., Ferreira, J., Holmans, P., Langbehn, D., Lewis, G., Lindquist, M., et al. (2014) · Nature Biotechnology · doi:10.1038/nbt.3004 · Cited by 43
Hart, P. S., Campbell-Árvai, V., Wolske, K. S., & Raimi, K. T. (2022) · Energy Research & Social Science · doi:10.1016/j.erss.2022.102656 · Cited by 43
Assessing Publication Bias: a 7-Step User’s Guide with Best-Practice Recommendations
Kepes, S., Wang, W., & Cortina, J. M. (2022) · Journal of Business and Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10869-022-09840-0 · Cited by 47
Integration of Theory, Research Design, Measurement, and Analysis
Tracey, T. J. G., & Glidden-Tracey, C. E. (1999) · The Counseling Psychologist · doi:10.1177/0011000099273002 · Cited by 42
Negativland - a home for all findings in psychology
Laws, K. R. (2013) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/2050-7283-1-2 · Cited by 45
“Remarkably, Greenwald found that researchers were eight times more likely to submit a manuscript for publication if the results were positive rather than negative.”
BackgroundInfluentialResponse Heaping in Interviewer-Administered Surveys: Is It Really a Form of Satisficing?
Holbrook, A. L., Anand, S., Johnson, T. P., Cho, Y. I., Shavitt, S., Chávez, N. R., & Weiner, S. J. (2014) · Public Opinion Quarterly · doi:10.1093/poq/nfu017 · Cited by 42
“…biased against seeing value in these kinds of null results, and null findings are all too often relegated to the “file drawer,” where they make no contribution to accumulated knowledge (Greenwald 1975), although significant results are no more true than null findings (Nosek, Spies, and Motyl 2012).”
ResultEffect Sizes, Power, and Biases in Intelligence Research: A Meta-Meta-Analysis
Nuijten, M. B., van Assen, M. A. L. M., Augusteijn, H. E. M., Crompvoets, E. A. V., & Wicherts, J. M. (2020) · Journal of Intelligence · doi:10.3390/jintelligence8040036 · Cited by 42
“Publication bias is the phenomenon where statistically significant results have a higher probability of being published than non-significant results (Greenwald 1975).”
BackgroundButton, K. S., Chambers, C., Lawrence, N., & Munafo, M. R. (2019) · Psychology Learning & Teaching · doi:10.1177/1475725719857659 · Cited by 40
What Is Knowledge? Who Creates It? Who Possesses It? The Need for Novel Answers to Old Questions
Oeberst, A., Kimmerle, J., & Creß, U. (2016) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-13536-6_6 · Cited by 47
Anderson, S. F. (2019) · Psychological Methods · doi:10.1037/met0000248 · Cited by 44
“Moreover, if (cid:2) is not corrected, Type I errors are more likely to be published, and these tend to linger, as subsequent replications will likely produce nonsignificant results, which will not be published (Greenwald, 1975).”
Do Victims of Injustice Punish to Improve Their Mood?
Gollwitzer, M., & Bushman, B. J. (2011) · Social Psychological and Personality Science · doi:10.1177/1948550611430552 · Cited by 47
“However, we believe that the present research represents one of the cases in which scientific advance is achieved by rejecting a theory (cf. Greenwald, 1975; Platt, 1964).”
BackgroundCrime reporting as a function of bystander encouragement, surveillance, and credibility.
Bickman, L., & Rosenbaum, D. P. (1977) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.35.8.577 · Cited by 43
Investigating the replicability of the social and behavioural sciences
Tyner, A. H., Abatayo, A. L., Daley, M., Field, S., Fox, N. W., Haber, N., Hahn, K. M., Struhl, M. K., Mawhinney, B., Miske, O., et al. (2026) · Nature · doi:10.1038/s41586-025-10078-y · Cited by 54
“The high proportion of significant findings replicates a well-documented bias in the published literature favouring significance 18,19,29,30 .”
Decision qualities of Bayes factor and p value-based hypothesis testing.
Jeon, M., & de Boeck, P. A. L. (2017) · Psychological Methods · doi:10.1037/met0000140 · Cited by 44
“Note that all cells in Table 1 sum up to 1 because we apply the concept of how plausible the null and alternative hypotheses are ( 0, 1), which are also called base rates in the literature (Greenwald, 1975; Nuzzo, 2014).”
BackgroundKepes, S., & Thomas, M. A. (2018) · European Journal of Information Systems · doi:10.1080/0960085x.2017.1390188 · Cited by 45
“This bias stems from the tendency to submit and/or publish studies with statistically significant results, rather than basing submission and publication decisions on the quality of the research (Greenwald, 1975; Orlitzky, 2012; Rosenthal, 1979).”
BackgroundHas the evidence for moral licensing been inflated by publication bias?
Kuper, N., & Bott, A. (2019) · Meta-Psychology · doi:10.15626/mp.2018.878 · Cited by 30
“Publication bias (Rothstein, Sutton, & Borenstein, 2005) has been a well-known problem in psychology for several decades (e.g., Greenwald, 1975) and the replication crisis has raised awareness for the issue (e.g., Ferguson & Heene, 2012; Francis, 2012; Franco, Malhotra, & Simonovits, 2014;…”
Stracke, C. M. (2020) · Lecture notes in educational technology · doi:10.1007/978-981-15-4276-3_2 · Cited by 49
“…avoid duplications of studies but are not often reported and published or not even submitted due to reporting and publication bias, in particular, in social sciences (Fanelli, 2010; Sterling, 1959, Cook&Therrien, 2017; Therrien & Cook, 2018; Franco, Malhotra & Simonovits, 2014; Greenwald, 1975).”
BackgroundAn Analysis of Statistical Power in Behavioral Accounting Research
Borkowski, S. C., Welsh, M. J., & Zhang, Q. (2001) · Behavioral Research in Accounting · doi:10.2308/bria.2001.13.1.63 · Cited by 40
Significance Testing in Psychological Research: Some Persisting Issues
Estes, W. K. (1997) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.1997.tb00538.x · Cited by 40
“Is all this significance testing just a ritual, or do investigators take the outcomes seriously? Greenwald (1993) addressed that question by querying all authors and reviewers of manuscripts submitted to the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology during a 3 -month period in 1973 as to what they did when the resu…”
BackgroundLakens, D., & Albers, C. J. (2017) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/b7z4q · Cited by 48
Single-case experimental research designs.
Kazdin, A. E. (2015) · Methodological issues and strategies in clinical research (4th ed.). · doi:10.1037/14805-029 · Cited by 39
Conditional equivalence testing: An alternative remedy for publication bias
Campbell, H., & Gustafson, P. (2018) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0195145 · Cited by 42
“As Greenwald (1975) writes: “it is inadvisable to place confidence in results that support a null hypothesis because there are too many ways (including incompetence of the researcher), other than the null hypothesis being true, for obtaining a null result.””
BackgroundA 20-Year Review of Outcome Reporting Bias in Moderated Multiple Regression
O’Boyle, E. H., Banks, G. C., Carter, K., Walter, S. L., & Yuan, Z. (2018) · Journal of Business and Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10869-018-9539-8 · Cited by 42
“However, statistically significant MMR tests may be more likely to be published than those that fail to reach significance (Greenwald, 1975; Orlitzky, 2012; Porter, 1992; Rosenthal, 1979; Sterling, 1959).”
BackgroundInteraction of Older Brothers and Sex-Typing in the Prediction of Sexual Orientation in Men
Bogaert, A. F. (2003) · Archives of Sexual Behavior · doi:10.1023/a:1022827524721 · Cited by 39
“Null findings, such as those observed in this study, are often seen as less important or meaningful than a significant (supportive) effect, but as Greenwald (1975) has argued, discrimination against accepting the null hypothesis is detrimental to research progress in science.”
BackgroundDoes the need for agreement among reviewers inhibit the publication controversial findings?
Armstrong, J. S., & Hubbard, R. (1991) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00065699 · Cited by 37
Bal, F., & Nijkamp, P. J. (2001) · European Journal of Operational Research · doi:10.1016/s0377-2217(00)00078-3 · Cited by 38
Introduction to the Special Section on Advancing Our Methods and Practices
Ledgerwood, A. (2014) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691614529448 · Cited by 39
“The first wave of responses to the sense of crisis understandably focused on problems—many of which had been raised before and even repeatedly (Cohen, 1992; Greenwald, 1975; Maxwell, 2004; Rosenthal, 1979)—but which in this new context seemed more urgently and insistently to demand the field’s consideration.”
BackgroundMiciak, J., Roberts, G. J., Taylor, W. P., Solis, M. R., Ahmed, Y., Vaughn, S. R., & Fletcher, J. M. (2017) · Learning Disabilities Research and Practice · doi:10.1111/ldrp.12159 · Cited by 48
“This difficulty is a problem if it results in publication bias, which is shorthand for a complex socio-scientific problem in which researchers and journals are reluctant to publish studies that do not demonstrate statistically significant results, often independent of the rigor of the research design (Cook & Therrien,…”
BackgroundThe Spread of Statistical Significance Testing in Psychology
Hubbard, R., Parsa, R., & Luthy, M. R. (1997) · Theory & Psychology · doi:10.1177/0959354397074006 · Cited by 44
Strube, M., Gardner, W. P., & Hartmann, D. P. (1985) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/0272-7358(85)90030-3 · Cited by 38
Honest signaling in academic publishing
Tiokhin, L., Panchanathan, K., Lakens, D., Vazire, S., Morgan, T. J. H., & Zollman, K. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0246675 · Cited by 43
“, novelty, type of result (positive or negative), whether conclusions support scientists’ preconceptions [6, 68, 90]).”
A Parsimonious Weight Function for Modeling Publication Bias
Citkowicz, M., & Vevea, J. L. (2017) · Psychological methods · doi:10.1037/met0000119 · Cited by 42
Chapter 11: Issues in Meta-Analysis
Hedges, L. (1986) · Review of Research in Education · doi:10.3102/0091732x013001353 · Cited by 85
“There is also direct evidence that journal editors and reviewers intentionally include statistical significance among their criteria for selecting manuscripts for pub lication (Bakan, 1966; Greenwald, 1975; Melton, 1962).”
InfluentialGoing beyond the narrative summarization of research findings: The meta‐analysis approach
Curlette, W. L., & Cannella, K. S. (1985) · Research in Nursing & Health · doi:10.1002/nur.4770080312 · Cited by 37
The functional independence of trait self-knowledge: Commentary on Sakaki (2007)
Klein, S. B., Robertson, T. E., Gangi, C. E., & Loftus, J. (2008) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658210802010489 · Cited by 36
“Since the findings we have so far described all are null, two possible interpretations of the data suggest themselves (eg, Greenwald, 1975 ).”
BackgroundProverb Comprehension: The Primacy of Literal Meaning
Temple, J. G., & Honeck, R. P. (1999) · Journal of Psycholinguistic Research · doi:10.1023/a:1023287420088 · Cited by 36
“In both Experiments 4 and 5, there was a failure to reject the null hypothesis of no difference between the two conditions, permitting a provisional, if imperfect, acceptance of the null hypothesis, since it was tested under conditions of unbiased replication and adequate power (Cook, Gruder, Hennigan, & Flay, 1979; G…”
BackgroundTrait humor and longevity: Do comics have the last laugh?
Rotton, J. (1992) · Health Psychology · doi:10.1037//0278-6133.11.4.262 · Cited by 36
Error Probabilities in Educational and Psychological Research
Westermann, R., & Hager, W. (1986) · Journal of Educational Statistics · doi:10.3102/10769986011002117 · Cited by 36
Hyatt, C. S., Chester, D. S., Zeichner, A., & Miller, J. D. (2019) · Aggressive Behavior · doi:10.1002/ab.21830 · Cited by 35
“Alternately, we believe that an over-emphasis on significance testing and a field-wide prejudice against the null (Greenwald, 1975) may be the most substantial contributor to this flexibility in quantification strategy (e.g., Simmons et al., 2011).”
BackgroundPsychological science’s replicability crisis and what it means for science in the courtroom.
Chin, J. M. (2014) · Psychology Public Policy and Law · doi:10.1037/law0000012 · Cited by 39
Radical Solutions and Open Science
Burgos, D. (2020) · Lecture notes in educational technology · doi:10.1007/978-981-15-4276-3 · Cited by 49
Contemporary Approaches to Meta-Analysis in Communication Research
Johnson, B. T., Scott‐Sheldon, L. A. J., Snyder, L. B., Noar, S. M., & Huedo-Medina, T. B. (2008) · Sage eBooks · doi:10.4135/9781452272054.n11 · Cited by 39
Practical tools and strategies for researchers to increase replicability
Nuijten, M. B. (2018) · Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology · doi:10.1111/dmcn.14054 · Cited by 39
“One of the main causes for this excess of significant effects seems to be publication bias: the phenomenon that statistically significant findings have a higher probability of being published than nonsignificant findings.(13) The evidence that the field of psychology is affected by publication bias is overwhelming.”
BackgroundSaxe, L. (1991) · Integrative Psychological and Behavioral Science · doi:10.1007/bf02912514 · Cited by 35
Alcoholic beverages and their placebos: An empirical evaluation of expectancies
Keane, T. M., Lisman, S. A., & Kreutzer, J. S. (1980) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/0306-4603(80)90005-2 · Cited by 35
Evaluating Replication ResultsPreprint
Simonsohn, U. (2013) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2259879 · Cited by 38
Does the conclusion follow from the evidence? Recommendations for improving research
Hales, A. H. (2016) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2015.09.011 · Cited by 54
Yoder, P. J., Blackford, J. U., Waller, N. G., & Kim, G. (2004) · Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/13803390490510040 · Cited by 34
“Probable Obstacles to Replication in the Electrocortical Field The bias against publishing nonsignificant results makes it extremely difficult to estimate the proportion of electrocortical results that are replicated at a specific level of analysis (i.e., the level of the electrode, component, and ERP quantification m…”
Bobtcheff, C., Bolte, J., & Mariotti, T. (2016) · The Review of Economic Studies · doi:10.1093/restud/rdw038 · Cited by 34
Greenwald, A. G. (1975) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.32.4.578 · Cited by 34
Self-citationMere Ownership Revisited: A Robust Effect?
Barone, M. J., Shimp, T. A., & Sprott, D. E. (1997) · Journal of Consumer Psychology · doi:10.1207/s15327663jcp0603_03 · Cited by 36
Adjusting for publication bias: modelling the selection process.
Preston, C., Ashby, D., & Smyth, R. (2004) · Journal of Evaluation In Clinical Practice · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2753.2003.00457.x · Cited by 40
Turk, D. C., & Speers, M. A. (1983) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-010602-8.50007-9 · Cited by 34
Oral approach‐avoidance: A replication and extension for European–Portuguese phonation
Godinho, S., & Garrido, M. V. (2015) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.2172 · Cited by 35
The Heuristic Value of p in Inductive Statistical Inference
Krueger, J. I., & Heck, P. R. (2017) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00908 · Cited by 33
“Significance testing is thus biased against the hypothesis being tested (Greenwald, 1975; Berger and Sellke, 1987).”
MethodImplications of the open science era for educational psychology research syntheses
Patall, E. A. (2021) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1080/00461520.2021.1897009 · Cited by 37
“In an early study on prejudice against the null hypothesis, Greenwald (1975) revealed that 41% of authors only submit a study for publication if statistically significant results are found and that null results are often interpreted as a failure of design, rather than an indication of the…”
BackgroundDifferenzielle Aspekte psychischer Beanspruchung aus Sicht der Zielorientierung
Müller, A., Mohr, G., & Rigotti, T. (2004) · Zeitschrift für Differentielle und Diagnostische Psychologie · doi:10.1024/0170-1789.25.4.213 · Cited by 33
Ottenbacher, K. J., Scoggins, A., & Wayland, J. (1981) · The Occupational Therapy Journal of Research · doi:10.1177/153944928100100204 · Cited by 33
“In spite of the nonsignificant statistical outcome and the existing prejudice against publishing results that do not reject the null hypothesis (Bakan, 1966; Greenwald, 1975), there are findings of interest and importance in these results.”
ResultBarriers to Creating KnowledgePreprint
Calhoun, M. A., & Starbuck, W. H. (2003) · SSRN Electronic Journal · Cited by 33
Revising Beliefs about the Merit of Unconscious Thought: Evidence in Favor of the Null Hypothesis
Newell, B. R., & Rakow, T. (2011) · Social Cognition · doi:10.1521/soco.2011.29.6.711 · Cited by 36
“Greenwald, A. G. (1993). Consequences of prejudice against the null hypothesis.”
BackgroundInfluentialSmith‐Crowe, K., Burke, M. J., Kouchaki, M., & Signal, S. M. (2012) · Organizational Research Methods · doi:10.1177/1094428112465898 · Cited by 33
“…interest, it will be necessary to specify a ‘‘null response range,’’ analogous to a null range with regard to a formal test of the null hypothesis (see Greenwald, 1975), to determine whether the observed pattern of responses, or the relative percentages of individuals within the respective…”
BackgroundTackett, J. L., & Miller, J. D. (2019) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/abn0000455 · Cited by 32
Bias in Meta-Analytic Estimates of the Absolute Efficacy of Psychotherapy
Staines, G. L., & Cleland, C. M. (2007) · Review of General Psychology · doi:10.1037/1089-2680.11.4.329 · Cited by 32
“Indeed, in his metameta-analysis of studies between 1980 and 1993, Grissom (1996) observed that metaanalysts rarely weighted studies by the inverse of sampling variance to obtain less variable estimates of ES.”
MethodResultNeufeld, R. W. J. (1976) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.33.5.632 · Cited by 32
Irreproducible text-book “knowledge”: The effects of color bands on zebra finch fitness
Wang, D., Forstmeier, W., Ihle, M., Khadraoui, M., Jerónimo, S., Martin, K., & Kempenaers, B. (2018) · Evolution · doi:10.1111/evo.13459 · Cited by 30
“Such selective reporting implies that the literature also contains a high proportion of false-positive claims (Greenwald 1975; Jennions and Moller 2002; Prinz et al. 2011; Button et al. 2013; Franco et al. 2014; Holman et al. 2016).”
BackgroundChalmers, I., & Dickersin, K. (2013) · F1000Research · doi:10.12688/f1000research.2-1.v1 · Cited by 35
Cairo, A. H., Green, J. D., Forsyth, D. R., Behler, A. M. C., & Raldiris, T. L. (2020) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167220903896 · Cited by 32
Meta-analysis and the study of group dynamics.
Mullen, B. D., Driskell, J. E., & Eduardo Salas, A. (1998) · Group Dynamics Theory Research and Practice · doi:10.1037//1089-2699.2.4.213 · Cited by 31
Beyond statistical inference: A decision theory for science
Kileen, P. R. (2006) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/bf03193962 · Cited by 30
“Balking would now occur for combinations of d and n that are too big to be trivial, yet too small to be valuable ( Greenwald, 1975; Greenwald, Gonzalez, Harris, & Guthrie, 1996).”
BackgroundFiedler, K., & Wänke, M. (2004) · Journal of Cultural and Evolutionary Psychology · doi:10.1556/jcep.2.2004.1-2.2 · Cited by 31
“We are aware of the sampling bias inherent in published research since decades (GREENWALD 1975), but even though the bias is well-known and easily located, we simply continue the available evidence at face value.”
BackgroundSmall sample failure of random assignment: A further examination.
Strube, M. (1991) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-006x.59.2.346 · Cited by 31
Making Attributions for Behaviors: The Prevalence of Correspondence Bias in the General Population
Bauman, C. W., & Skitka, L. J. (2010) · Basic and Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/01973533.2010.495654 · Cited by 30
“Nevertheless, we acknowledge the potential issues associated with interpreting null results, but we hope the results of the current study nonetheless contribute to the conversation in the literature and prompt further examination of the role of self-construal in correspondence bias (Greenwald, 1975).”
ResultUsing Meta-Analysis in Psychiatric Research
Streiner, D. L. (1991) · The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/070674379103600508 · Cited by 30
Evaluating Registered Reports: A Naturalistic Comparative Study of Article Impact
Hopun, L. T., Singleton Thorn, F., Nosek, B. A., & Errington, T. M. (2017) · doi:10.31219/osf.io/5y8w7 · Cited by 29
Negative Results: Conceptual and Methodological Dimensions in Single-Case Intervention Research
Kratochwill, T. R., Levin, J. R., & Horner, R. H. (2017) · Remedial and Special Education · doi:10.1177/0741932517741721 · Cited by 31
“Such a scientific culture has created a “publication bias” (e.g., Ferguson & Heene, 2012; Greenwald, 1975), and it is increasingly recognized that this circumstance has deleterious effects on science (Pashler & Wagenmakers, 2012), could promote academic misconduct (Fanelli, 2012), and, notably,…”
BackgroundInfluentialPre-registration and Results-Free Review in Observational and Qualitative Research
Jacobs, A. M. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108762519.009 · Cited by 30
Bundling Effects on Variety Seeking for Digital Information Goods
Adomavičius, G., Bockstedt, J. C., & Curley, S. P. (2015) · Journal of Management Information Systems · doi:10.1080/07421222.2014.1001266 · Cited by 29
“Although this is inconsistent with typical experimental reporting, in this case we argue the importance of the null results, an argument made more generally by Greenwald [18].”
ResultMunk, A., & Pflüger, R. (1999) · Journal of the American Statistical Association · doi:10.1080/01621459.1999.10473883 · Cited by 29
JOHNSON, D. D. P., Baker, S., Morecroft, M. D., & Macdonald, D. W. (2001) · BMC Ecology · doi:10.1186/1472-6785-1-2 · Cited by 28
“The consequences of this should not be understated, the effect has been demonstrated in both surveys [ 50 ] and an empirical study comparing significance levels in published and non-published studies of the same topic [51].”
ResultNeoplasm and Traumatic Events in Childhood
Duszynski, K. R. (1981) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1981.01780280095011 · Cited by 29
Metadata
- Authors
- Greenwald, A. G.
- Affiliations
- The Ohio State University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Greenwald, Anthony G.
- Venue
- Psychological Bulletin
- Published
- 1975-01
- Volume
- 82
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 1-20
- ISSN
- 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1455
- OpenAlex
- W2116618538
- Cited by
- 1,022
- References
- 47
- Citations by year
- 2026: 12 · 2025: 17 · 2024: 18 · 2023: 19 · 2022: 22 · 2021: 54 · 2020: 49 · 2019: 28 · 2018: 43 · 2017: 39 · 2016: 39 · 2015: 28 · 2014: 28 · 2013: 35 · 2012: 32
- FWCI
- 20.20
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Psychology Research and Bibliometrics
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Statistics, Probability and Uncertainty › Meta-analysis and systematic reviews
- Social Sciences › Library and Information Sciences › Academic Publishing and Open Access
- Keywords
- null hypothesis, publication bias, editorial decision-making, social psychology
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
