The DOI matches its Crossref record; 164 of the 164 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Can impaired working memory functioning be improved by training? A meta-analysis with a special focus on brain injured patients.
Open accessAbstract
OBJECTIVE: Deficits in working memory (WM) are commonly observed after brain injuries and cause severe impairments in patients' everyday life. It is still under debate if training can enhance or rehabilitate WM in case of malfunction. The current meta-analysis investigates this issue from a clinical point of view. It addresses under which conditions and for which target group WM training may be justifiable. METHOD: Relevant WM training studies were identified by searching electronic literature databases with a comprehensive search term. In total, 103 studies, which added up to 112 independent group comparisons (N = 6,113 participants), were included in the analysis. RESULTS: Overall, WM training caused a moderate and long-lasting improvement in untrained WM tasks. Moreover, improvement of WM functioning led to sustainable better evaluation of everyday life functioning, however, effect sizes were small. Concerning transfer effects on other cognitive domains, long-lasting improvements with small effect sizes were observed in cognitive control and reasoning/intelligence. In contrast, small immediate, but no long-term effects were found for attention and long-term memory. Studies with brain injured patients demonstrated long-lasting improvements in WM functions with moderate to large effect sizes. A main moderator variable of intervention efficacy is the number of training sessions applied. CONCLUSION: WM training produces long-lasting beneficial effects which are strongly pronounced in patients with acquired brain injuries. This finding supports the application of WM training in clinical settings. To determine optimal training conditions, future studies must systematically investigate the characteristics of interventions as they are at present inevitably confounded.
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The text we found for this paper looks like another document, so the self-check wasn’t run.
Citations
Cites
Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses: the PRISMA statement
Moher, D., Liberati, A., Tetzlaff, J., Altman, D. G., & for the PRISMA Group (2009) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj.b2535 · Cited by 83,823
Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences
Cohen, J. (1990) · Computers Environment and Urban Systems · doi:10.1016/0198-9715(90)90050-4 · Cited by 65,417
Bias in meta-analysis detected by a simple, graphical test
Egger, M., Smith, G. D., Schneider, M., & Minder, C. (1997) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj.315.7109.629 · Cited by 56,722
Quantifying heterogeneity in a meta‐analysis
Higgins, J. P. T., & Thompson, S. G. (2002) · Statistics in Medicine · doi:10.1002/sim.1186 · Cited by 36,763
Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions: Cochrane Book Series
(2008) · doi:10.1002/9780470712184 · Cited by 25,048
Studies of interference in serial verbal reactions
Stroop, J. R. (1935) · Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0054651 · Cited by 18,622
Wasserman, S. S., Hedges, L. V., & Olkin, I. (1988) · Journal of Educational Statistics · doi:10.2307/1164953 · Cited by 10,377
A basic introduction to fixed-effect and random-effects models for meta-analysis
Borenstein, M., Hedges, L. V., Higgins, J. P. T., & Rothstein, H. R. (2010) · Research Synthesis Methods · doi:10.1002/jrsm.12 · Cited by 6,793
Individual differences in working memory and reading
Daneman, M., & Carpenter, P. A. (1980) · Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0022-5371(80)90312-6 · Cited by 6,336
Working Memory Capacity as Executive Attention
Engle, R. W. (2002) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/1467-8721.00160 · Cited by 2,507
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 4
- Ackerman, P. L., Beier, M. E., & Boyle, M. O. (2005). Working memory and intelligence: The same or different constructs? Psychological Bulletin, 131(1), 30–60. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033- · DOI
- Adam, K. C. S., Mance, I., Fukuda, K., & Vogel, E. K. (2015). The contribution of attentional lapses to individual differences in visual working memory capacity. Journal of Cognitive
- Neuroscience, 27(8), 1601–1616. https://doi.org/10.1162/jocn_a_00811 · DOI
- Intelligence: Two Case Reports. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 1939. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01939 · DOI
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 101–150 of 150
Oledzka, A., & Barker, L. A. (2021) · OBM Neurobiology · doi:10.21926/obm.neurobiol.2102093 · Cited by 5
“Page 3/19 There is evidence of effective EF training in healthy children [14], adults [15, 16], the elderly [17, 18], and neuropathological groups [19].”
BackgroundMazo, G., Pantaléo, S. M., van der Oord, A., Picq, J., Hertz‐Pannier, L., Brunet-Gouet, É., Azouvi, P., & Vallat‐Azouvi, C. (2024) · Neuropsychological Rehabilitation · doi:10.1080/09602011.2024.2319909 · Cited by 5
“…results, with some concluding that there was no significant effect (Melby-Lervåg et al., 2016; Soveri et al., 2017), a significant effect only of the number of sessions (Weicker et al., 2016), or a significant effect of duration (hours) of treatment (Pappa et al., 2020; Schwaighofer et al., 2015).”
Jylkkä, J., Stickley, Z. L., Fellman, D., Waris, O., Ritakallio, L., Little, T. D., Salmi, J., & Laine, M. (2024) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1177/17470218241278272 · Cited by 6
“…but rather enhances performance only on tasks that have close structural resemblance to the trained task (Au et al., 2015; Karbach & Verhaeghen, 2014; Kassai et al., 2019; Melby-Lervåg et al., 2016; Melby-Lervåg & Hulme, 2013; Sala & Gobet, 2017; Schwaighofer et al., 2015; Weicker et al., 2016).”
Joubert, C., & Chainay, H. (2019) · Journal Of Aging Research And Healthcare · doi:10.14302/issn.2474-7785.jarh-18-2458 · Cited by 4
“In addition, some authors have shown that working memory training leads to long-lasting improvements in executive functioning [14].”
BackgroundThe working memory modifiability: Effects of mediation on working memory and analogical thinking
Tzuriel, D., Hanuka-Levy, D., & Weiss, T. (2025) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2025.106061 · Cited by 3
Working memory training yields improvements in L2 morphosyntactic processing
Durand-López, E. M. (2024) · Language Cognition and Neuroscience · doi:10.1080/23273798.2024.2359560 · Cited by 3
“Meta-analyses, however, show mixed results (e.g. Hou et al., 2020; Melby-Lervåg et al., 2016; Sala & Gobet, 2020; Soveri et al., 2017; Weicker et al., 2016).”
ResultNo evidence for an effect of a working memory training program on white matter microstructure
Lawlor‐Savage, L., Kusi, M., Clark, C. M., & Goghari, V. M. (2021) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2021.101541 · Cited by 5
Doyle, N., McDowall, A., Randall, R., & Knight, K. (2022) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0265312 · Cited by 8
“03, higher than a practice effect and similar to improvements reported as significant in computerized working memory training research [57, 58].”
Bonnechère, B., & Klass, M. (2023) · Games for Health Journal · doi:10.1089/g4h.2022.0120 · Cited by 3
Training Working Memory for Two Years – No Evidence of Transfer to IntelligencePreprint
Watrin, L., Hülür, G., & Wilhelm, O. (2021) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/hc8je · Cited by 3
Bioethical Aspects of Human Geneticization
Leźnicki, M. (2020) · Studia Ecologiae et Bioethicae · doi:10.21697/seb.2020.18.3.02 · Cited by 2
White, J., & Lockwood, K. J. (2025) · Clinical Rehabilitation · doi:10.1177/02692155251336981 · Cited by 2
Miller, S. E., DeBoer, M. D., & Scharf, R. J. (2019) · American Journal of Perinatology · doi:10.1055/s-0039-1700858 · Cited by 2
Pappa, K., Flegal, K. E., Baylan, S., & Evans, J. J. (2021) · Applied Neuropsychology Adult · doi:10.1080/23279095.2021.1904243 · Cited by 2
Archambault, C., Tullo, D., Clark, E., Faubert, J., & Bertone, A. (2021) · Pilot and Feasibility Studies · doi:10.1186/s40814-021-00879-z · Cited by 4
“duced larger effects than non-adaptive programs (see [37, 38]).”
BackgroundWorking Memory and Intelligence
Nash Unsworth, A., & Redick, T. S. (2017) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-809324-5.21041-9 · Cited by 4
Oldoni, M. L., Catecati, T., Legal, E. J., et al. (2021) · Computer Methods and Programs in Biomedicine Update · doi:10.1016/j.cmpbup.2021.100006 · Cited by 2
Jylkkä, J., Fellman, D., Waris, O., Ritakallio, L., Stickley, Z. L., Little, T. D., Salmitaival, J., & Laine, M. (2021) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/jqwfp · Cited by 2
Zhong, L.-A., Chen, K.-Y., Hsieh, M.-J., & Ho, M.-C. (2025) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2025.105499 · Cited by 4
Ma, C., Li, Y., Gao, Y., Lin, X., Hou, Y., He, W., Zhu, Y., Jiang, J., Xie, Y., & Fang, P. (2025) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhaf081 · Cited by 1
Raising Intelligence by Means of Behavioral Training
Jaušovec, N., & Pahor, A. (2017) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-809407-5.00003-8 · Cited by 1
Computerized Cognitive Training and Evidence-Based Practice in Pediatric Psychology
Schwartz, D. D. (2020) · Clinical Practice in Pediatric Psychology · doi:10.1037/cpp0000374 · Cited by 2
Minja, E. G., Mrimi, E. C., Mponzi, W. P., Beckmann, J., Finda, M. F., Okumu, F. O., Long, K. Z., Lang, C., Utzinger, J., & Gerber, M. (2025) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph22091335 · Cited by 1
“Second, participants received training prior to testing, which may have reduced performance variability and further obscured differences between groups [63,64].”
Effects and Combination of Tailored Browser-Based and Mobile Cognitive Software Training
Gabele, M., Thoms, A., Schröer, S., et al. (2022) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-98355-0_24 · Cited by 1
Ørskov, P. T., Norup, A., Beatty, E. L., & Jaeggi, S. M. (2021) · Journal of Cognitive Enhancement · doi:10.1007/s41465-021-00221-8 · Cited by 1
Getting at Underlying Mechanisms of Far Transfer - the Mediating Role of Near TransferPreprint
Pahor, A., Seitz, A. R., & Jaeggi, S. M. (2021) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/q5xmp · Cited by 1
The asymmetry of working memory training transfer: A systematic review and meta-analysis
Fu, J., Zhou, Y., Yuan, M., & Cai, Y. (2026) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-026-02994-5
“…dosage, although the evidence remains mixed: early meta-analytic work reported positive associations between training amount and transfer effects (Weicker et al., 2016), whereas later syntheses reported little or no moderation by total training hours (Soveri et al., 2017a), or effects that were…”
The effectiveness of working memory training – points to consider for future research
Szewczyk, R. Ł. (2016) · Polish Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1515/ppb-2016-0005
“Regarding the reviews of research with clinical patients, Weicker and Thöne-otto (2015) showed that WMT is effective method of cognitive therapy for brain injured patients.”
BackgroundMethodZając-Lamparska, L., Izdebski, P. K., & Wiłkość-Dębczyńska, M. (2017) · Neuropsychiatria i Neuropsychologia · doi:10.5114/nan.2017.74143
Neuroanatomical Changes Associated with Working Memory Training in Healthy Adults
Lawlor‐Savage, L. (2018) · Libraries and Cultural Resources (University of Calgary) · doi:10.11575/prism/32054
Cerebral bases of cognitive training in working memory executive tasks
Padilla, A. M. (2018) · Tesis Doctorals en Xarxa (Consorci de Serveis Universitaris de Catalunya) · doi:10.6035/14109.2018.208792
Rééduquer la mémoire de travail ? Questions et enjeux
Vallat‐Azouvi, C., & Azouvi, P. (2019) · Revue de neuropsychologie · doi:10.1684/nrp.2019.0501
Working Memory Training and Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation
Au, J., Buschkuehl, M., & Jaeggi, S. M. (2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780199974467.003.0006 · Cited by 1
Richard, G. (2019) · NORA - Norwegian Open Research Archives
Mount, S. W., Houben, K., Gosker, H. R., van Beers, M., Schuurman, L., Franssen, F. M. E., Janssen, D. J. A., & Schols, A. M. W. J. (2019) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.2.9455/v2
“Specifically, WMT resulted in a moderate and long lasting improvement in untrained WM tasks, small improvements in evaluations of everyday life functioning, cognitive control and reasoning (30).”
BackgroundInterventions for Attention and Working Memory
Anderson, C. D., & Anderson, J. R. (2018) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781316855683.003
Radmanesh, H., Omidian, M., Shehnyyailagh, M., & Maktabi, G. H. (2022) · The Journal Of Psychological Science · doi:10.52547/jps.20.108.2195
Mount, S. W., Houben, K., Gosker, H. R., van Beers, M., Schuurman, L., Franssen, F. M. E., Janssen, D. J. A., & Schols, A. M. W. J. (2019) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.2.9455/v1
“Speci cally, WMT resulted in a moderate and long lasting improvement in untrained WM tasks, small improvements in evaluations of everyday life functioning, cognitive control and reasoning [25].”
BackgroundRééduquer la mémoire de travail ? Questions et enjeux
Vallat‐Azouvi, C., & Azouvi, P. (2019) · Revue de neuropsychologie · doi:10.3917/rne.111.0029
Executive function and education
Calma‐Birling, D., Semenov, A. D., & Zelazo, P. D. (2022) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-818630-5.14022-9 · Cited by 2
Rééducation cognitive après une lésion cérébrale acquise
Azouvi, P., & Vallat‐Azouvi, C. (2023) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-2-294-78309-8.00030-6
Störungen von Lernen und Gedächtnis
Thöne-Otto, A. I. T. (2024) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-66957-0_22
Self-citationNVT-Read – eine neue (Online-)Therapie für Patientinnen und Patienten mit hemianoper Lesestörung
Poschenrieder, J., & Kerkhoff, G. (2024) · Zeitschrift für Neuropsychologie · doi:10.1024/1016-264x/a000400
The Working Memory Modifiability: Effects of Mediation on Working Memory and Analogical ThinkingPreprint
Tzuriel, D., Hanuka-Levy, D., & Weiss, T. (2025) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.5254501
Ali, D. S., Soliman, N. M., El-Badramany, M. A., & Khalifa, M. E. (2025) · Cognitie, Creier, Comportament · doi:10.24193/cbb.2025.29.12
Methods for a fully online automated cognitive training study on Prolific
Joëssel, F., Denkinger, S., Joessel, P.-E., Green, C. S., & Bavelier, D. (2025) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2025.105704
Oved, N., Lerner, N., Assa, N., Bukowski, E., Simkin, T., Menestrina, Z., Pasqualotto, A., Fanourakis, M., Bavelier, D., Lipskaya‐Velikovsky, L., et al. (2026) · JMIR Serious Games · doi:10.2196/94986
Precision cognitive neurorehabilitation: dose, adaptivity, digital therapeutics and implementation
Sander, F. W., Sallard, E., Silva, M., Schneider, L., Diserens, K., Graf, C. E., Serino, A., & Sokolov, A. A. (2026) · Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics · doi:10.1080/14737175.2026.2723909
Metadata
- Authors
- Weicker, J., Villringer, A., & Thöne-Otto, A.
- Affiliations
- Max Planck Society (DE)
- Leipzig University (DE)
- Venue
- Neuropsychology
- Published
- 2016
- Volume
- 30
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 190-212
- ISSN
- 0894-4105 (ISSN-L)
- 1931-1559
- OpenAlex
- W1618038909
- Semantic Scholar
- 1016f832cb994fa36bd96a515015eb5bacbd71e9
- Cited by
- 147
- References
- 164
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 10 · 2024: 8 · 2023: 6 · 2022: 10 · 2021: 17 · 2020: 16 · 2019: 27 · 2018: 20 · 2017: 21 · 2016: 9
- FWCI
- 25.60
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- ul.qucosa.de
- Licence
- cc-by-nc-nd
- Locations
- Neuropsychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- MPG.PuRe (Max Planck Society) (submittedVersion)
- Qucosa (Saxon State and University Library Dresden) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Funders
- German Max Planck Society
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Keywords
- working memory training, working memory, brain injury, acquired brain injury, cognitive rehabilitation, transfer effects, cognitive control, attention, long-term memory, training sessions
- MeSH terms
- Attention, Brain Injuries, Humans, Intelligence, Learning, Memory, Short-Term, Thinking, Memory, Long-Term
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-08 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
