Cited by 376Social and Intergroup PsychologyDeath Anxiety and Social ExclusionPsychology of Moral and Emotional Judgment

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They see us as less than human: Metadehumanization predicts intergroup conflict via reciprocal dehumanization.

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Kteily, Nour, Hodson, Gordon, Bruneau, Emile·2016·Journal of Personality and Social Psychology

DOI 10.1037/pspa0000044

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Abstract

Although the act of dehumanizing an outgroup is a pervasive and potent intergroup process that drives discrimination and conflict, no formal research has examined the consequences of being dehumanized by an outgroup-that is, "metadehumanization." Across 10 studies (N = 3,440) involving several real-world conflicts spanning 3 continents, we provide the first empirical evidence that metadehumanization (a) plays a central role in outgroup aggression that is (b) mediated by outgroup dehumanization, and (c) distinct from metaprejudice. Studies 1a and 1b demonstrate experimentally that Americans who learn that Arabs (Study 1a) or Muslims (Study 1b) blatantly dehumanize Americans are more likely to dehumanize that outgroup in return; by contrast, experimentally increasing outgroup dehumanization did not increase metadehumanization (Study 1c). Using correlational data, Study 2 documents indirect effects of metadehumanization on Americans' support for aggressive policies toward Arabs (e.g., torture) via Arab dehumanization. In the context of Hungarians and ethnic minority Roma, Study 3 shows that the pathway for Hungarians from metadehumanization to aggression through outgroup dehumanization holds controlling for outgroup prejudice. Study 4 examines Israelis' metaperceptions with respect to Palestinians, showing that: (a) feeling dehumanized (i.e., metadehumanization) is distinct from feeling disliked (i.e., metaprejudice), and (b) metadehumanization uniquely influences aggression through outgroup dehumanization, controlling for metaprejudice. Studies 5a and 5b explore Americans' metaperceptions regarding ISIS and Iran. We document a dehumanization-specific pathway from metadehumanization to aggressive attitudes and behavior that is distinct from the path from metaprejudice through prejudice to aggression. In Study 6, American participants learning that Muslims humanize Americans (i.e., metahumanization) humanize Muslims in turn. Finally, Study 7 experimentally contrasts metadehumanization and metahumanization primes, and shows that resulting differences in outgroup dehumanization are mediated by (a) perceived identity threat, and (b) a general desire to reciprocate the outgroup's perceptions of the ingroup. In summary, our research outlines how and why metadehumanization contributes to cycles of ongoing violence and animosity, providing direction for future research and policy. (PsycINFO Database Record

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Background
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Background
Radicalization and Mental Health
Rosa, C. D., Fiorillo, A., VECCHIO, V. D., Catapano, P., Guadagno, D., Volpicelli, A., & Sampogna, G. (2024) · Sustainable development goals series · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-70165-8_13 · Cited by 1
Of donkeys, elephants, and dehumanization: exploring the content and implications of stereotypes of Republicans, Democrats, Libertarians, and independents
Brown, E. R., Phills, C. E., & Veilleux, C. J. (2025) · Frontiers in Social Psychology · doi:10.3389/frsps.2025.1376013 · Cited by 1
Things We Do, Costs We Yet Don’t Know: Social Sharing as a Catalyst of Service Sabotage
Xu, E., Ouyang, K., Huang, X., Shaw, J. D., & Lam, L. W. (2025) · Management and Organization Review · doi:10.1017/mor.2025.19 · Cited by 1
“Drawing on shared reality theory (Hardin & Conley, 2001; Hardin & Higgins, 1996) and recent developments in research on moral disengagement (Goff et al., 2008; Kteily et al., 2016), we highlight the important role of social sharing in shaping this relationship.”
They don’t understand us: implications of felt understanding for psychological well-being in diverse communities
Hsueh, T., Park, H. J., Veldman, J., & Kachanoff, F. J. (2025) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298868.2025.2571544 · Cited by 1
“We assessed group members’ perception that their group is (dis)liked by other groups with a five-item scale adapted from Kteily et al. (2016) in Study 1a (α = .89).”
Reciprocal escalation of violent extremism: Experimental and longitudinal evidence from Denmark
Obaidi, M., Bergh, R., & Dovidio, J. F. (2025) · PNAS Nexus · doi:10.1093/pnasnexus/pgaf338 · Cited by 1
“…that can produce reciprocal escalation, such as the extent to which one group’s negativity or perceptions of another group’s beliefs (i.e. meta-perceptions (23)) lead that group to display greater intergroup hostility (24, 25), they do not directly investigate the iterative escalation of conflict.”
From faces to faceless: visual framing of migrant children in British media
Çetin, C. (2025) · Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies · doi:10.1080/1369183x.2025.2594672 · Cited by 1
“…while others are anonymized, reflects long-standing intergroup dynamics (Struch and Schwartz 1989) and has measurable effects on both public attitudes and self-perceptions among marginalised groups (Kteily, Hodson, and Bruneau 2016; Ongenaert, Joye, and Machin 2023; Yang et al. 2015).”
De fractura humana: narrative turning points and the ideological genesis of dehumanization among forced migrants in the Italian context
Poppi, F. I. M. (2025) · Critical Discourse Studies · doi:10.1080/17405904.2025.2607009 · Cited by 1
Buffered From the Dehumanizing Effects of Negative Interactions With Individuals Experiencing Homelessness? Exploring the Role of Social Justice Motivations and Education
Tausen, B. M., Alder, K., Asfaw, B., Parlane, T., & Ma, M. (2025) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/jasp.70012 · Cited by 1
Humanizing the Transgressor, Dehumanizing the Victim: The Asymmetric Effects of Transgressors’ Good Intentions in Immoral Behaviour
Moreno-Gata, S., Rodríguez‐Torres, R., Betancor, V., & Pérez, A. R. (2026) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.70040 · Cited by 1
Political and social hate speech: differences on emotional and rhetorical features on TikTok messages
Segado-Boj, F., Quevedo, J. M., González-Aguilar, J.-M., & Jimeno, T. A. (2026) · Frontiers in Political Science · doi:10.3389/fpos.2025.1712927 · Cited by 3
First, second and third-order ethnic perception biases in assessing support for intergroup violence in Israel
Zohar, Y., Rozmann, N., & Gilat, S. (2026) · Israel Affairs · doi:10.1080/13537121.2026.2623507 · Cited by 1
‘They're eating our pets!’: When disgust and perceived cruelty combine to heighten prejudice
Kimel, S. Y., Kunst, J. R., Uenal, F., & Kim, V. (2026) · British Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjso.70063 · Cited by 1
Dehumanization among children: Conceptualizations, measures and empirical findings
Khanjanian, M., Pouretemad, H., & Karimzadeh, O. (2026) · Cognitive Development · doi:10.1016/j.cogdev.2026.101692 · Cited by 1
Linguistic Stereotypes and Metastereotypes Among General and Southern American English Speakers: Content and Associations with Intergroup Anxiety
Dragojević, M., & Gasiorek, J. (2026) · Journal of Language and Social Psychology · doi:10.1177/0261927x261439294 · Cited by 1
“…metastereotypes as a potentially important — and relatively accessible — target of future interventions aimed at reducing language-based prejudice and discrimination (for examples of metastereotype-based interventions for nonlinguistic groups, see Lees & Cikara, 2020; Kteily et al., 2016).”
When virtues are weaponized: Moral superiority aggravates outgroup dehumanization
Zhang, Z., & Chen, Z. (2026) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1111/pops.70140 · Cited by 2
“Previously, because the two aspects of dehumanization are strongly associated with each other (e.g., Crawford et al., 2013; Kteily et al., 2016, Study 5), numerous scholars have examined status in relation to dehumanization as an integrated construct encompassing both animalistic and mechanistic…”
Ideological differences in moral concern reflect circle expansion, not inversion
Law, K. F., Bae, S., Young, L., & Syropoulos, S. (2026) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1111/pops.70158 · Cited by 1
“…as globalization and the transition from tight kinship-based societies to more loosely connected ones have contributed to a historical broadening of the moral horizon, shifting concern away from parochialism and toward greater universalism (Enke, 2019; Kirkland et al., 2023; Kteily et al., 2016).”
The role of partisan news and political parasocial relationships in shaping meta‐perceptions: Cross‐national evidence
Rasul, M. E., Hameiri, B., Hacohen, G., Malovicki-Yaffe, N., & Moore‐Berg, S. L. (2026) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1111/pops.70172 · Cited by 2
“…as perceptions of how much outgroup members dislike the ingroup (Moore-Berg, Ankori-Karlinsky, et al., 2020; Moore-Berg & Hameiri, 2024), while meta-dehumanization can be conceptualized as perceptions of how evolved or civilized outgroup members view the in-group (Kteily et al., 2015, 2016).”
Coping with Negative Attitude Toward Muslims in The Netherlands and Germany: The Role of Religious Moral Values among Indonesian Migrants
Diponegoro, A. M., & Mujidin, M. (2018) · ASEAN Conference on Psychology, Counselling, and Humanities (ACPCH) · doi:10.2991/acpch-17.2018.1 · Cited by 1
The Self/Other Space and Spinning the Net of Ontological Insecurities in Ukraine and Beyond: (Discursive) Reconstructions of Boundaries in the EU Eastern Partnership Countries Vis-à-Vis the EU and Russia
Szkola, S. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-78589-9_10 · Cited by 2
EVIDENCE-INFORMED RECOMMENDATIONS TO SUPPORT IMPLEMENTATION OF BEST PRACTICE THERAPEUTIC EXERCISE FOR PEOPLE WITH KNEE AND/OR HIP OSTEOARTHRITIS: AN INTERNATIONAL CONSENSUS PROCESS
Holden, M. A., Metcalf, B., Lawford, B. J., Hinman, R. S., Boyd, M., Button, K., Collins, N. J., Cottrell, E., Henrotin, Y. E., Larsen, J. B., et al. (2022) · Osteoarthritis and Cartilage · doi:10.1016/j.joca.2022.02.541 · Cited by 1
Monsters and the moral psychology of the “other”
Monteiro, B., West, B., & Pizarro, D. A. (2022) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-323-85667-6.00001-3 · Cited by 1
Missing a beam in thine own eye: Motivated perceptions of collective narcissism
Baba, J., Cichocka, A. K., & Cisłak, A. (2023) · Group Processes & Intergroup Relations · doi:10.1177/13684302231208398 · Cited by 1
“As past work showed that expecting an outgroup’s negative perception was associated with hostility toward that outgroup (Vorauer et al., 1998, 2000; see also Kteily & Bruneau, 2017; Kteily et al., 2016), future efforts should be turned to minimizing national narcissists’ perceptual biases.”
The More, the Merrier…: The Effect of Social Network Heterogeneity on Attitudes Toward Political Opponents
Górska, P., Bulska, D., & Górski, M. (2025) · Social Inclusion · doi:10.17645/si.10282 · Cited by 1
Navigating the Threat Landscape
Obaidi, M., Kunst, J. R., & Myftari, K. (2025) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781009407892.020 · Cited by 1
The Role of Dehumanization in Violent Extremism
Hodson, G., & Kteily, N. (2025) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781009407892.021 · Cited by 1
Self-citation
Violent Extremism and the Moral Landscape
Wig, T., & Obaidi, M. (2025) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781009407892.012 · Cited by 1
Villains or vermin? The differential effects of criminal and animal rhetoric on immigrant cardiovascular responses
El-Hout, M., & Salomon, K. (2022) · Group Processes & Intergroup Relations · doi:10.1177/13684302221098009 · Cited by 1
“Participants were asked to read a fabricated article (adapted from Kteily et al., 2016) purportedly written by the Pew Research Center that contained quotes from the American public who were surveyed on immigrants in the US.”
Method
Together from afar: Introducing a Diary Contact Technique for Improving Intergroup Relations
Jackson, J. C., Gelfand, M. J., Ayub, N., & Wheeler, J. (2019) · Behavioral Science & Policy · doi:10.1177/237946151900500103 · Cited by 1
Intentional and Phenomenal attributions in the light of the influence of personality traits, and Attitudes towards robots on pro-social behaviour in human-robot interactionPreprint
Spatola, N., Marchesi, S., & Wykowska, A. (2021) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/qaw3t · Cited by 1
An Unequal and Inhumane Society: Perceived Inequality Enlarges the Perceived Humanity Gap between Poor and Rich GroupsPreprint
Sainz, M. (2021) · doi:10.31219/osf.io/wscda · Cited by 1
How People Justify Online Political HostilityPreprint
Rasmussen, J. S. (2023) · PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/r3y5u · Cited by 1
Geflüchtete und wir – sozialpsychologische Perspektiven
Wagner, U. (2016) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-658-15741-8_10
Examining Dehumanization Through the "Political Brain Perspective": Towards a Minimal Neuropolitical Theory for Hyperdiverse Societies
Yu, L. (2017) · doi:10.7916/d8697fv7
Entry into the Extreme Right
Kruglanski, A. W., Webber, D. J., & Köehler, D. (2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190851095.003.0006
Inside the Extreme Right
Kruglanski, A. W., Webber, D. J., & Köehler, D. (2019) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190851095.003.0007
Cognitive and neural bases of decision-making causing civilian casualties during intergroup conflictPreprint
Han, X., Zhou, S., Fahoum, N., Wu, T., Gao, T., Shamay-Tsoory, S., Gelfand, M. J., Wu, X., & Han, S. (2020) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2020.12.04.411280
Follow the Leader
Fitzduff, M. (2021) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197512654.003.0007
New Horizons, New Tribes
Fitzduff, M. (2021) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197512654.003.0009

Authors: Kteily, N., Hodson, G., & Bruneau, E.
Affiliations: Northwestern University (US)
Brock University (CA)
University of Pennsylvania (US)
ORCID: Kteily, Nour
Hodson, Gordon
Bruneau, Emile
Venue: Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 2016
Volume: 110
Issue: 3
Pages: 343-370
ISSN: 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
1939-1315
DOI: 10.1037/pspa0000044
OpenAlex: W2296577595
Cited by: 376
References: 75
Citations by year: 2026: 37 · 2025: 42 · 2024: 42 · 2023: 50 · 2022: 39 · 2021: 66 · 2020: 32 · 2019: 34 · 2018: 13 · 2017: 15 · 2016: 6
FWCI: 64.64
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: green
repository.upenn.edu
Locations: Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
ScholarlyCommons (University of Pennsylvania) (submittedVersion)
Funders: Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada
Topics: Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Death Anxiety and Social Exclusion
Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Psychology of Moral and Emotional Judgment
Keywords: intergroup aggression, intergroup conflict, outgroup prejudice, Arab-Muslim relations, Israeli-Palestinian conflict, Roma, ISIS, Iran
MeSH terms: Adult, Aggression, Female, Group Processes, Romani People, Humans, Hungary, Islam, Israel, Male, Middle Aged, Prejudice, United States, Arabs, Dehumanization

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They see us as less than human: Metadehumanization predicts intergroup conflict via reciprocal dehumanization.

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