When every day is a high school reunion: Social media comparisons and self-esteem.
Open accessAbstract
Although past research has shown that social comparisons made through social media contribute to negative outcomes, little is known about the nature of these comparisons (domains, direction, and extremity), variables that determine comparison outcomes (post valence, perceiver's self-esteem), and how these comparisons differ from those made in other contexts (e.g., text messages, face-to-face interactions). In 4 studies (N = 798), we provide the first comprehensive analysis of how individuals make and respond to social comparisons on social media, using comparisons made in real-time while browsing news feeds (Study 1), experimenter-generated comparisons (Study 2), and comparisons made on social media versus in other contexts (Studies 3 and 4). More frequent and more extreme upward comparisons resulted in immediate declines in self-evaluations as well as cumulative negative effects on individuals' state self-esteem, mood, and life satisfaction after a social media browsing session. Moreover, downward and lateral comparisons occurred less frequently and did little to mitigate upward comparisons' negative effects. Furthermore, low self-esteem individuals were particularly vulnerable to making more frequent and more extreme upward comparisons on social media, which in turn threatened their already-lower self-evaluations. Finally, social media comparisons resulted in greater declines in self-evaluations than those made in other contexts. Together, these studies provide the first insights into the cumulative impact of multiple comparisons, clarify the role of self-esteem in online comparison processes, and demonstrate how the characteristics and impact of comparisons on social media differ from those made in other contexts. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).
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Research has identified associations between certain forms of social media engagement and experiences such as social comparison, exposure to distressing content, misinformation, cyberbullying, sleep disruption and difficulties disengaging from online environments.
“Research has identifed associations between certain forms of social media engagement and experiences such as social comparison, exposure to distressing content, misinformation, cyberbullying, sleep disruption and difculties disengaging from online environments [23-25].”
From The Complex and Multifaceted Nature of Social Media: Perspectives From Young Adolescents, Parents and Experts (2026) · cites this paper as [25]
The Study 4 Discussion reports that social media use was associated with more frequent upward social comparisons. The passages provided and the additional searches do not support the other listed experiences: exposure to distressing content, misinformation, cyberbullying, sleep disruption, or difficulty disengaging from online environments. (LLM, conf=0.90)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredImage-focused platforms may expose adolescents to idealised portrayals of appearance, lifestyle and success, which some young people report comparing themselves against.
“Image-focused platforms, in particular, may expose adolescents to idealised portrayals of appearance, lifestyle and success, which some young people report comparing themselves against [25].”
From The Complex and Multifaceted Nature of Social Media: Perspectives From Young Adolescents, Parents and Experts (2026) · cites this paper as [25]
The Comparison Domains sections report comparisons about looks and vacations, activities, and lifestyle; the Post Modality section says participants reported more image-triggered than text-triggered comparisons on social media. The General Discussion describes filtered photos and upward comparisons, but says several studies focused on young adults and calls for research across age groups. The findings therefore support the comparison mechanism, not the claim specifically about adolescents. (LLM, conf=0.87)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredSocial media was identified as a complex and multifaceted tool, offering opportunities for connection, education, and identity exploration, while also highlighting concerns relating to misinformation, social comparison, online victimisation and highly immersive or difficult-to-disengage-from forms of engagement.
“Consistent with previous research (e.g., [4]), social media was identifed as a complex and multifaceted tool, ofering opportunities for connection, education, and identity exploration [19, 55, 56], while also highlighting concerns relating to misinformation, social comparison, online victimisation and highly immersive or difcult-to-disengage-from forms of engagement [24, 25, 28, 57].”
From The Complex and Multifaceted Nature of Social Media: Perspectives From Young Adolescents, Parents and Experts (2026) · cites this paper as [25]
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Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThese results support previous research suggesting that frequent engagement in upward comparisons may exacerbate negative emotional outcomes, including lower self-esteem and increased depressive symptoms, particularly when the comparisons are extreme.
“These results support previous research suggesting that frequent engagement in upward comparisons may exacerbate negative emotional outcomes, including lower self-esteem and increased depressive symptoms, particularly when the comparisons are extreme (Midgley et al., 2021).”
From The associations between social comparison on social media and young adults’ mental health (2025) · cites this paper as Midgley et al., 2021
The Discussion reports that more frequent upward comparisons were associated with worse mood and lower state self-esteem, while more extreme upward comparisons were associated with lower self-evaluations. The Comparisons on Social Media section reports an association between more comparisons and depressive symptoms, but does not establish that those comparisons were upward or extreme, or that they caused the symptoms. (LLM, conf=0.87)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredExtreme upward comparisons, where there is a large gap between the self and the comparison target, are associated with lower self-esteem.
“Extreme upward comparisons—where there is a large gap between the self and the comparison target—are associated with lower self-esteem (Midgley et al., 2021).”
From The associations between social comparison on social media and young adults’ mental health (2025) · cites this paper as Midgley et al., 2021
According to Midgley et al. (2021), engaging in more extreme upward social comparisons can have a more pronounced effect on users' self-esteem than less extreme comparisons.
“According to (Midgley et al., 2021), engaging in more extreme upward social comparisons—where the gap between the user and the comparison target is larger—can have a more pronounced effect on users’ self-esteem than less extreme comparisons.”
From The associations between social comparison on social media and young adults’ mental health (2025) · cites this paper as Midgley et al., 2021
Extreme upward comparisons, where comparison targets are perceived as significantly superior, can negatively mediate the relationship between SNSs use and self-esteem.
“Midgley et al. (2021) suggest that extreme upward comparisons, where the comparison targets are perceived as significantly superior, can negatively mediate the relationship between SNSs use and self-esteem.”
From The associations between social comparison on social media and young adults’ mental health (2025) · cites this paper as Midgley et al., 2021
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References 117 · Cited by 164
Research works printed but not linked: 6
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- Dorethy, M.D., Fiebert, M.S., & Warren, C.R. (2014). Examining social networking site behaviors: Photo sharing and impression management on Facebook. International Review of Social Sciences and Humanities, 6, 111-116.
- Gibbons, F.X., & Gerrard, M. (1989). Effects of upward and downward social comparisons on mood states. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 8, 14-31.
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- Authors
- Midgley, C., Thai, S., Lockwood, P., Kovacheff, C., & Page-Gould, E.
- Affiliations
- University of Toronto (CA)
- Brock University (CA)
- Venue
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
- Published
- 2021-08
- Volume
- 121
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 285-307
- ISSN
- 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1315
- OpenAlex
- W2980501973
- Cited by
- 164
- References
- 117
- Citations by year
- 2026: 30 · 2025: 37 · 2024: 24 · 2023: 39 · 2022: 24 · 2021: 9 · 2020: 1
- FWCI
- 24.39
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- hdl.handle.net
- Locations
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- TSpace (University of Toronto) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Impact of Technology on Adolescents
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Body Image and Dysmorphia Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
- Keywords
- social media comparison, upward social comparison, self-esteem, state self-esteem, mood, life satisfaction
- MeSH terms
- Social Comparison, Affect, Humans, Schools, Self Concept, Social Media
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