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Cited by 16Impact of Technology on AdolescentsBody Image and Dysmorphia StudiesMental Health via Writing

The associations between social comparison on social media and young adults’ mental health

Open access
Le Blanc-Brillon, Justine, Fortin, Jean-Simon, Lafrance, Livia, Hétu, Sébastien·2025·Frontiers in Psychology
DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1597241PMC PMC12370522
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Abstract

Introduction: Social networking sites (SNSs) have become an integral part of daily life, raising concerns about their potential impact on mental health. One key mechanism through which SNSs may affect wellbeing is social comparison. The present research aimed to examine the mediating role of social comparisons (upward and downward) in the relationship between SNSs use and self-esteem (global and physical). Methods: Study 1 ( N = 139; female 51%; 73% White), conducted during the COVID-19 pandemic, tested whether perceived exposure to social comparisons mediated the relationship between Instagram use and self-esteem. Results: Results revealed that upward comparisons mediated the association between Instagram use and lower global self-esteem, but no significant mediation was found for physical self-esteem. Study 2 ( N = 413; 58% female; 62% White), conducted post-pandemic, extended these findings by including two SNSs (Instagram and Facebook), the extremity of upward comparisons (how far superior the comparison target is perceived to be), social feedback (responses or evaluations from others) and measures of depressive symptoms. As expected, exposure to upward comparisons negatively mediated the relationship between SNSs use and self-esteem (both global and physical), and positively mediated the relationship between SNSs use and depressive symptoms. However, contrary to our hypothesis, frequent SNSs users engaged in less extreme upward comparisons, partially buffering the negative impact of extreme upward comparisons. Discussion: Together, these findings highlight the crucial role of both exposure to and extremity of upward social comparisons in the complex relationship between SNSs use and mental health. These two factors contribute significantly though modestly to the effects of SNSs on self-esteem and depressive symptoms ( R 2 between 6 and 9%), underscoring the need for further research on individual and contextual variables that may mitigate their adverse psychological consequences.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

Two online studies tested whether upward and downward social comparisons mediate links between social networking site (SNS) use and young adults’ self-esteem and depressive symptoms. Upward comparison exposure consistently mediated negative associations with global and physical self-esteem and positive associations with depressive symptoms, while greater SNS use unexpectedly predicted less extreme upward comparisons, partially buffering harm.

Key findings

  • Study 1 (N = 139; 51.1% female; 72.7% White) found that perceived exposure to upward comparisons mediated the association between Instagram use and lower global self-esteem (indirect effect b = −0.13, 95% CI [−0.22, −0.04]; model R² = 8%), but no significant mediation was found for physical self-esteem. Contrary to the hypothesis, Instagram use positively predicted global self-esteem (b = 0.28) and physical self-esteem (b = 1.05).
  • Study 2 (N = 413; 58% female; 62% White) found that exposure to upward comparisons negatively mediated SNS use and self-esteem (global and physical) and positively mediated SNS use and depressive symptoms. For example, Facebook use → global self-esteem via upward exposure: b = −0.03, 95% CI [−0.06, −0.01], model R² = 8%; Instagram use → physical self-esteem via upward exposure: b = −0.04, 95% CI [−0.09, −0.01], model R² = 9%.
  • Contrary to hypotheses, more frequent SNS use was associated with less extreme upward comparisons, producing positive mediation paths for self-esteem and negative mediation paths for depressive symptoms. Perceived extremity of upward comparisons itself was negatively associated with global and physical self-esteem and positively associated with depressive symptoms.
  • Platform (Facebook vs. Instagram) showed no significant moderation of the mediation effects, and gender did not significantly moderate the associations. Academic self-esteem was mostly unaffected, except for one unexpected Instagram extremity model. Overall models explained R² between 6 and 9%.

Methods

  • Two cross-sectional online studies recruited American or Canadian participants aged 18–35 via Amazon Mechanical Turk. Study 1 (October 2021, during COVID-19) included Instagram users only (N = 139; Mage = 28.13, SD = 4.16). Study 2 (June 2023, post-pandemic) randomly assigned participants to Instagram (n = 206) or Facebook (n = 207) conditions (Mage ≈ 28.5).
  • Study 1 measured Instagram usage, perceived exposure to upward/downward comparisons, global self-esteem (Rosenberg), and physical self-esteem (Body-Esteem Scale). Study 2 measured SNS usage, perceived exposure and extremity of comparisons, social feedback valence/quantity, global self-esteem, physical self-esteem (Body-Esteem Scale for Adolescents and Adults), academic self-esteem, and depressive symptoms (Beck Depression Inventory).
  • Analyses used correlations and mediation models with PROCESS (Model 4 and 15), 5,000 bootstrap samples, and unstandardized coefficients; Study 2 also tested moderated mediation by platform, social feedback, and gender.

Limitations

  • The paper states that the correlational design prevents causal conclusions; online data collection limited control over response accuracy; analyses did not control for body image dissatisfaction, narcissism, or baseline mental health; and demographic/cultural diversity was not explored, limiting generalizability.
  • Study 1 limitations stated by the authors include no data on loneliness, active vs. passive SNS use, social feedback, or comparison extremity; MTurk recruitment may introduce demographic biases; and the physical self-esteem measure assessed satisfaction with specific body parts, which may not capture appearance-focused comparisons on Instagram.
  • Evident from the text: both samples were young adult, American/Canadian, predominantly White MTurk users, and all measures were self-report, so findings may not generalize to other ages, cultures, or non-MTurk populations.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1597241

Cites

117 of 117 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Claims the paper makes

27 of 54 cited sources checked · 14 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Study design and conductcitation

    Participants in Study 1 were recruited via MTurk, a method known to introduce potential demographic biases that may affect generalizability.

    “participants were recruited via MTurk, a method known to introduce potential demographic biases, such as higher digital literacy and specific cultural or political orientations, which may affect generalizability of our findings”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Chandler et al., 2019 source

      The paper’s discussion of MTurk sample composition says its workers differ from the US population in age, education, religiosity, and political orientation. Its Introduction also notes that demographic differences can limit whether findings replicate in nationally representative samples. The copy does not establish that MTurk workers have higher digital literacy; the citing authors’ Study 1 recruitment is their own description, not a finding attributed to this source. (LLM, conf=0.86)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Premisecitation

    Highly curated and idealized content on SNSs encourages users to engage in upward social comparisons.

    “The highly curated and idealized content prevalent on SNSs encourages users to engage in upward social comparisons, where they compare themselves to seemingly superior others (Henriques and Patnaik, 2020).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Henriques and Patnaik, 2020 source

      Section 4 says SNSs prompt appearance comparisons among teenagers and that teenage girls are vulnerable to upward comparison. Section 5 describes social-media images as idealized and digitally altered. The paper supports the general connection, but its explicit discussion of upward comparison concerns teenage girls, not SNS users broadly. (LLM, conf=0.83)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Premisecitation

    Extreme upward comparisons, where there is a large gap between the self and the comparison target, are associated with lower self-esteem.

    “Extreme upward comparisons—where there is a large gap between the self and the comparison target—are associated with lower self-esteem (Midgley et al., 2021).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Midgley et al., 2021 source
  • Premisecitation

    Upward social comparisons mediate the relationship between SNSs use and lower self-esteem (global and physical).

    “Overall, these studies indicate that upward social comparisons mediate the relationship between SNSs use and physical self-esteem.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Scully et al., 2020 source
    • cites Tiggemann and Zaccardo, 2015 source
    • cites Wang et al., 2017 source

      The Results (Results Relating to Hypothesis 1 and Hypothesis 2) report that upward social comparison significantly mediated the relationship between passive SNS use and lower self-esteem. But the Measures section shows that self-esteem was measured with a general self-esteem scale, not a measure of physical self-esteem. The cited study therefore supports the general self-esteem finding, not the physical self-esteem claim in the citing sentence. (LLM, conf=0.90)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Premisecitation

    Frequent use of SNSs is linked to an increase in upward comparisons.

    “Studies have consistently shown that frequent use of SNSs is linked to an increase in these upward comparisons (Gomez et al., 2022; Schmuck et al., 2019; Vogel et al., 2014).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Gomez et al., 2022 source
    • cites Schmuck et al., 2019 source

      Section 5.3 (page unavailable) reports that more frequent mobile Facebook use predicted greater upward social comparison over time. It found no significant longitudinal relationship for Instagram, YouTube, Snapchat, or WhatsApp, so this paper does not support the claim as a general finding about frequent SNS use. (LLM, conf=0.90)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites Vogel et al., 2014 source
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 33
  • May combine two claims. 33
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 2

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Other studies suggest that the relationship between SNS use and mental health remained negative during the COVID-19 pandemic.

    “other studies suggest that the relationship between SNSs use and mental health remained negative during the pandemic”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim3 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Draženović et al., 2023 source

      The Principal Findings (Section 4.1) report that social media use was predominantly associated with mental ill-being among adolescents and students during the early months of COVID-19. The claim omits those population and time limits; the Conclusions (Section 5) also note some potentially positive effects. (LLM, conf=0.84)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites Haddad et al., 2021 source
    • cites Marciano et al., 2022 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Extreme upward comparisons, where comparison targets are perceived as significantly superior, can negatively mediate the relationship between SNSs use and self-esteem.

    “Midgley et al. (2021) suggest that extreme upward comparisons, where the comparison targets are perceived as significantly superior, can negatively mediate the relationship between SNSs use and self-esteem.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Midgley et al., 2021 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The relationship between SNS use and wellbeing is context-dependent, with effects sometimes beneficial and sometimes detrimental, and may vary based on user motivations, content type, and platform engagement styles.

    “Recent work suggests that the relationship between SNSs use and wellbeing is highly context-dependent and may vary based on user motivations, content type, and platform engagement styles”
    • Also stated in: § Discussion · boosted
      “It is increasingly evident that the effects of SNSs are context-dependent—sometimes beneficial and sometimes detrimental”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim2 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Verduyn et al., 2020 source
    • cites Meier and Johnson, 2022 source
    • cites Akkaş and Turan, 2024 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Social media's impact on mental health tends to be more pronounced in females.

    “research focusing on adolescence reveals that social media’s impact on mental health tends to be more pronounced in females (Barthorpe et al., 2020; Kelly et al., 2019; Twenge et al., 2022).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim3 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Barthorpe et al., 2020 source

      The available passage from our copy contains only the paper’s title and author information, not findings about sex differences. Searches for females and gender differences returned no further passages, so the claimed stronger association in females cannot be verified from our copy. (LLM, conf=0.70)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites Kelly et al., 2019 source

      The Results report a stronger association between social media use and depressive symptoms for girls than boys. The Discussion limits this finding to 14-year-olds in the UK and says causality cannot be inferred, so it does not establish a stronger causal impact on mental health generally. (LLM, conf=0.86)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites Twenge et al., 2022 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Previous evidence indicates that social comparisons on social networking sites negatively influence self-esteem.

    “This finding is in line with previous evidence that social comparisons on social networking sites negatively influence self-esteem”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim3 of 3 sources checked
    • cites McComb et al., 2023 source
    • cites Schmuck et al., 2019 source
    • cites Wang et al., 2017 source

      The Discussion reports that upward social comparison on social networking sites is associated with lower self-esteem and describes it as detrimental to self-esteem. The claim broadens this to social comparisons generally and says they negatively influence self-esteem, whereas the paper examines upward comparison and reports associations rather than establishing a causal effect. Page numbers are not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.83)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    According to Midgley et al. (2021), engaging in more extreme upward social comparisons can have a more pronounced effect on users' self-esteem than less extreme comparisons.

    “According to (Midgley et al., 2021), engaging in more extreme upward social comparisons—where the gap between the user and the comparison target is larger—can have a more pronounced effect on users’ self-esteem than less extreme comparisons.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Midgley et al., 2021 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    SNSs use is negatively associated with both global and physical self-esteem.

    “a substantial body of evidence demonstrates that SNSs use is negatively associated with both global (Andreassen et al., 2017; Liu and Baumeister, 2016; Saiphoo et al., 2020) and physical self-esteem (Fardouly and Vartanian, 2016; Saiphoo et al., 2020).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Andreassen et al., 2017 source

      Andreassen et al. is cited for global, not physical, self-esteem. The correlation analysis (p. 10) finds a negative association between self-esteem and addictive social media use (r = −.25), using the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale described on p. 8. The cited study does not establish the same association for SNS use generally, as the sentence states. (LLM, conf=0.87)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites Liu and Baumeister, 2016 source
    • cites Saiphoo et al., 2020 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Previous research has often shown that increased SNS use is associated with reduced self-esteem, highlighting risks of upward social comparison.

    “Previous research has often highlighted the risks of upward social comparison on SNSs, showing that increased use is associated with reduced self-esteem”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Schmuck et al., 2019 source
    • cites Sherlock and Wagstaff, 2019 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Instagram may influence self-esteem and wellbeing differently than Facebook because it emphasizes visual content like photos and videos.

    “Because Instagram emphasizes visual content like photos and videos, some researchers suggest that it may influence self-esteem and wellbeing differently than platforms such as Facebook (Faelens et al., 2021).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Faelens et al., 2021 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Our findings are in line with the mismatch hypothesis, which suggests that SNSs hijack our evolved social comparisons mechanisms by offering (too) abundant opportunities for upward comparisons.

    “Indeed, our findings are in line with the mismatch hypothesis (Lim and Tan, 2024), which suggests that SNSs hijack our evolved social comparisons mechanisms by offering (too) abundant opportunities for upward comparisons.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Lim and Tan, 2024 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    People from different cultural backgrounds may engage with SNS platforms in distinct ways, for example using Instagram for self-expression versus Facebook for maintaining family ties.

    “cultural backgrounds may engage with SNS platforms in distinct ways (Vasalou et al., 2010; Gordesli et al., 2024)—for example, using Instagram for self-expression versus Facebook for maintaining family ties.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Vasalou et al., 2010 source
    • cites Gordesli et al., 2024 source

      The Introduction section on individualism and collectivism in social media supports the general point that cultural orientation can shape SNS use. It reports Instagram use for self-promotion among Americans, but does not support the specific example of Facebook being used to maintain family ties or the stated contrast between the platforms. (LLM, conf=0.86)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    These results support previous research suggesting that frequent engagement in upward comparisons may exacerbate negative emotional outcomes, including lower self-esteem and increased depressive symptoms, particularly when the comparisons are extreme.

    “These results support previous research suggesting that frequent engagement in upward comparisons may exacerbate negative emotional outcomes, including lower self-esteem and increased depressive symptoms, particularly when the comparisons are extreme (Midgley et al., 2021).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Midgley et al., 2021 source

      The Discussion reports that more frequent upward comparisons were associated with worse mood and lower state self-esteem, while more extreme upward comparisons were associated with lower self-evaluations. The Comparisons on Social Media section reports an association between more comparisons and depressive symptoms, but does not establish that those comparisons were upward or extreme, or that they caused the symptoms. (LLM, conf=0.87)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Our findings revealed that similar effects were present on both Facebook and Instagram, despite subtle differences in the nature of their content.

    “Our findings revealed that similar effects were present on both Facebook and Instagram, despite subtle differences in the nature of their content (Limniou et al., 2022).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Limniou et al., 2022 source

      The Discussion says well-being may not dramatically differ between Facebook and Instagram users, despite differences in how the platforms are used. But it also reports a significant difference in problematic use, so the source supports similarity in well-being, not an unqualified claim of similar effects. (LLM, conf=0.84)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Both the exposure to upward comparisons and their extreme nature are central contributors to the emotional consequences of social media use.

    “Both the exposure to upward comparisons and their extreme nature are central contributors to the emotional consequences of social media use (Gerber et al., 2018; Schmuck et al., 2019; Irmer and Schmiedek, 2023).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim2 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Gerber et al., 2018 source
    • cites Schmuck et al., 2019 source

      The Discussion (section 6; page unavailable) reports a direct negative effect of upward social comparison on well-being, supporting the claim about its consequences. Section 2.1 describes comparisons with idealized online portrayals, but the paper does not establish that the *extremity* of a comparison independently contributes to those consequences. (LLM, conf=0.84)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites Irmer and Schmiedek, 2023 source

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data

    In Study 1, no significant moderation effects of gender were found.

    “No significant moderation effects were found.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In Study 2, contrary to hypothesis, frequent SNSs users engaged in less extreme upward comparisons, partially buffering the negative impact of extreme upward comparisons.

    “However, contrary to our hypothesis, frequent SNSs users engaged in less extreme upward comparisons, partially buffering the negative impact of extreme upward comparisons.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    In Study 2, perceived extremity of downward comparisons was slightly lower in the Instagram sample.

    “perceived extremity of downward comparisons was slightly lower in the Instagram sample”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    When social feedback was introduced as a moderator, no significant interactions were observed, except in the case of physical self-esteem on Facebook.

    “When social feedback was introduced as a moderator, no significant interactions were observed, except in the case of physical self-esteem on Facebook.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    More active users tended to make less extreme upward comparisons resulting in better self-esteem (global and physical).

    “where more active users tended to make less extreme upward comparisons resulting in a better self-esteem (global and physical).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In Study 2, no significant interactions were found, suggesting that the relations between SNSs usage and self-esteem are not modulated by the type of social media platform.

    “no significant interactions were found suggesting that, overall, these relations are not modulated by the type of social media platform.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In Study 2, both Instagram and Facebook use were not significantly correlated with global or physical self-esteem.

    “Both Instagram and Facebook use were not significantly correlated with global or physical self-esteem (p > 0.05).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In Study 1, frequency of Instagram use was a significant positive predictor of both global and physical self-esteem.

    “the results revealed that frequency of Instagram use was a significant positive predictor of both global and physical self-esteem.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The more participants reported to use Facebook, the more they perceived to be exposed to upward comparisons, which was in turn associated with lower global self-esteem.

    “The more participants reported to use Facebook, the more the perceived to be exposed to upward comparisons which was in turn associated with them reporting lower global self-esteem.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data

    Higher Instagram usage was associated with more perceived exposure to upward social comparisons.

    “where higher usage was associated with more perceived exposure to upward social comparisons”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The Instagram exposure model explained 5% (p = 0.02) of depression variance with no improvement from additional moderators.

    “The model explained 5% (p = 0.02) of depression variance with no improvement from additional moderators.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    One finding is consistent for all our results: upward comparisons, both in terms of exposure and extremity, is a negative predictor of self-esteem (global and physical) and a positive predictor of depressive symptoms.

    “one finding is consistent for all our results: upward comparisons—both in terms of exposure and extremity—is a negative predictor of self-esteem (global and physical) and a positive predictor of depressive symptoms”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The Facebook extremity model explained 7% (p < 0.01) of variance in depression with no improvement from additional moderators.

    “This model explained 7% (p < 0.01) of the variance in depression with no improvement from additional moderators.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In Study 2, social media usage, physical self-esteem, and perceived extremity of upward comparisons were slightly higher in the Instagram sample.

    “Social media usage, physical self-esteem and perceived extremity of upward comparisons were slightly higher in the Instagram sample”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Usage is linked to higher exposure to upward social comparisons which in turn is associated with lower global and physical self-esteem.

    “where usage is linked to a higher exposure to upward social comparisons which in turn is associated with lower global and physical self-esteem.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    For most models there was no direct or indirect relation of SNSs usage on academic self-esteem, except for the model of Instagram use with the extremity of upward social comparison.

    “results showed that for most models there was no direct or indirect relation of SNSs usage on this dimension of self-esteem (except for the model of Instagram use with the extremity of upward social comparison).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The Facebook exposure model explained 9% (p < 0.01) of depression variance with no improvement from additional moderators.

    “The models explained 9% (p < 0.01) of depression variance with no improvement from additional moderators.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The Instagram extremity model explained 8% (p < 0.01) of variance in depression with no improvement from additional moderators.

    “This model explained 8% (p < 0.01) of the variance in depression with no improvement from additional moderators.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In study 1, we observed a positive association between Instagram use and global self-esteem, a result not replicated in study 2 or supported by the existing literature.

    “in study 1, we observed a positive association between Instagram use and global self-esteem, a result not replicated in study 2 or supported by the existing literature.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Perceived exposure to upward comparisons negatively mediated the relationship between SNSs use and self-esteem, as well as the relationship between SNSs use and depressive symptoms.

    “the perceived exposure to upward comparisons negatively mediated the relationship between SNSs use and self-esteem, as well as the relationship between SNSs use and depressive symptoms.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    All statistical models tested in Study 1 are transparently reported in the manuscript.

    “However, all statistical models that were tested are transparently reported in the present manuscript.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    Normality tests conducted on each variable in Study 1 confirmed that all distributions were normal.

    “Normality tests conducted on each variable confirmed that all distributions were normal.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    The global self-esteem measure in Study 1 had acceptable internal consistency (Cronbach's α = 0.81).

    “Participants completed the Rosenberg Self-Esteem scale (α = 0.81)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Rosenberg, 1965

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Ruddell, 2020 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    In Study 1, while Instagram use seems associated with higher global self-esteem, this effect is reversed when considering the mediating role of upward comparisons: more Instagram use leads to more upward comparisons, which leads to lower global self-esteem.

    “These results suggest that while Instagram use seems to be associated to higher global self-esteem, this effect is reverse when considering the mediating role of upward comparisons: the more people use Instagram, the more they are exposed to upward social comparisons which leads to lower global self-esteem.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The cross-sectional associations among Instagram use, social comparisons, and self-esteem reflect causal mediation processes.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    The Instagram usage measure in Study 1 had acceptable internal consistency (Cronbach's α = 0.87).

    “This self-reported questionnaire was adapted from the Facebook usage questionnaire in Vogel et al. (2014) and consists of 5 items (Cronbach’s alpha (α) = 0.87)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Vogel et al. (2014) source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    The physical self-esteem measure in Study 1 had acceptable internal consistency (Cronbach's α = 0.90).

    “Participants completed the Body-Esteem scale (α = 0.90)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Franzoi and Shields, 1984 source
    • cites Cecil and Stanley, 1997 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    Study 1 was not preregistered.

    “This online study was not preregistered.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    These findings suggest that while upward social comparisons on SNSs may negatively impact self-esteem, the focus of these comparisons may determine which dimension of self-esteem are affected.

    “These findings suggest that while upward social comparisons on SNSs may negatively impact self-esteem, the focus of these comparisons may determine which dimension of self-esteem are affected.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductcitation

    Study 2 was preregistered.

    “This study was preregistered”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Le Blanc-Brillon and Hétu, 2023

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    In Study 1, the Body-Esteem Scale may be less sensitive to the kinds of upward comparisons users are exposed to on Instagram because it assesses satisfaction with specific body parts and may not reflect appearance-focused comparisons.

    “The Body-Esteem Scale (Franzoi and Shields, 1984) assesses satisfaction with specific body parts (e.g., feet, arms), which may not reflect the appearance-focused comparisons prevalent on Instagram. As such, this scale may be less sensitive to the kinds of upward comparisons users are exposed to.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Franzoi and Shields, 1984 source
    • Rests on an assumption: Instagram comparisons are predominantly appearance-focused.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Upward comparisons can negatively affect both global and physical self-esteem.

    “Evidence suggests that upward comparisons can negatively affect both global and physical self-esteem.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Overall, the results for both platforms were similar and did not differ significantly.

    “indicating that overall, the results for both platforms were similar and did not differ significantly”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Positive social feedback (e.g., receiving more likes) is associated with enhanced self-esteem.

    “Positive social feedback (e.g., receiving more likes) has been associated with enhanced self-esteem (Burrow and Rainone, 2017; Marengo et al., 2021).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Burrow and Rainone, 2017 source
    • cites Marengo et al., 2021 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    In Study 1, models controlling for covariables identified in exploratory analyses were tested.

    “Models controlling for covariables identified in the exploratory analyses were also tested”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    In Study 1, participants who did not respond correctly to the attention check (N = 16) were excluded from analyses.

    “Participants who did not respond correctly to the attention check question (N = 16) were excluded from the analyses.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    Study 2 randomly assigned participants to Instagram or Facebook conditions.

    “They were randomly assigned to the Instagram (n = 206; 118 females) or the Facebook conditions (n = 207; 122 females).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    Study 1 did not gather data on the extremity of social comparisons.

    “we did not gather data on the extremity of social comparisons”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    Normality tests confirmed that all variable distributions in Study 2 were normal.

    “Normality tests conducted on each variable confirmed that all distributions were normal.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The damage limitation strategy involves displaying more submissive behavior, lowering self-confidence, reducing social exploration, and using nonverbal cues of submission, such as gaze avoidance.

    “This strategy involves displaying more submissive behavior, lowering self-confidence, reducing social exploration, and using nonverbal cues of submission, such as gaze avoidance (Gilbert, 2001).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Gilbert, 2001 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Perceived exposure to and extremity of upward social comparisons are key mechanisms linking SNS use to impacts on self-esteem and depressive symptoms.

    “This study highlights perceived exposure to and extremity of upward social comparisons as key mechanisms linking SNSs use to impacts on self-esteem and depressive symptoms.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Cultural patterns of SNS platform engagement may influence both the frequency and content of social comparisons, as well as their emotional impact.

    “These patterns may influence both the frequency and content of social comparisons, as well as their emotional impact.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The mediation path was positive for extremity, suggesting that SNSs usage is associated to less extreme upward social comparisons which reduces the direct negative link found between the extremity of upward comparisons and affective outcomes.

    “However, the mediation path was positive for extremity, suggesting that SNSs usage is associated to less extreme upward social comparisons which reduces the direct negative link found between the extremity of upward comparisons and affective outcomes.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    This process plays a crucial role in shaping self-evaluation and mood, as individuals adjust their behavior based on their perceived social rank.

    “This process plays a crucial role in shaping self-evaluation and mood, as individuals adjust their behavior based on their perceived social rank (Gilbert, 1992).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Gilbert, 1992 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    A key gap in current knowledge is our limited mechanistic insight into how SNSs impact us.

    “A key gap in current knowledge is our limited mechanistic insight into how SNSs impact us (Kross et al., 2021).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kross et al., 2021 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Throughout evolution, when individuals perceived themselves as having a low rank, it was evolutionarily adaptive to adopt a damage limitation strategy.

    “Throughout evolution, when individuals perceived themselves as having a low rank, it was evolutionarily adaptive to adopt what is known as a damage limitation strategy (Gilbert, 1992).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Gilbert, 1992 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    Our study did not explore the potential influence of demographic or cultural diversity on social media behavior.

    “Finally, our study did not explore the potential influence of demographic or cultural diversity on social media behavior.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Social comparisons did not emerge with SNSs; it is a phylogenetically ancient ability that has likely been instrumental to navigating social hierarchies throughout human evolutionary history.

    “After all, social comparisons did not emerge with SNSs; it is a phylogenetically ancient ability that has likely been instrumental to navigating social hierarchies throughout human evolutionary history (Benítez and Brosnan, 2020; Gilbert et al., 1995).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Benítez and Brosnan, 2020 source
    • cites Gilbert et al., 1995 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    This theoretical framework helps explain why upward social comparisons are often linked to diminished self-esteem and mood.

    “This theoretical framework helps explain why upward social comparisons are often linked to diminished self-esteem and mood.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    According to ranking theory, social comparison is a mechanism through which individuals gather information about their position in the social hierarchy.

    “According to ranking theory, social comparisons is a mechanism through which individuals gather information about their position in the social hierarchy (Gilbert, 2001).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Gilbert, 2001 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    We implemented safeguards such as attention checks and filtering responses to open-ended questions.

    “While we implemented safeguards such as attention checks and filtering responses to open-ended questions, ensuring full data reliability in an online setting remains challenging.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Our results highlighted two key aspects of upward social comparisons, exposure and extremity, as critical factors linking SNSs use to affective outcomes such as self-esteem and depression.

    “our results highlighted two key aspects of upward social comparisons—exposure and extremity—as critical factors linking SNSs use to affective outcomes such as self-esteem and depression.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
65 of 65

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The cross-sectional associations among Instagram use, social comparisons, and self-esteem reflect causal mediation processes.

    “the more people use Instagram, the more they are exposed to upward social comparisons which leads to lower global self-esteem”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Social feedback (positive or negative) can affect users' self-esteem.

    “Substantial positive social feedback (e.g., likes, comments) may boost users’ self-esteem, while abundant negative feedback (e.g., negative comments, insults, etc.) may harm it.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Academic self-esteem should not be affected by social media usage.

    “Since school-related of self-esteem should not be affected by social media usage it was used as a control variable.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Instagram comparisons are predominantly appearance-focused.

    “which may not reflect the appearance-focused comparisons prevalent on Instagram”
4 of 4

Statistics recomputed

Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.

  • Consistentr(139) = 0.18reported p = .04 · recomputed p = .033

    “r(139) = 0.18, p = .04”

  • Consistentr(139) = 0.38reported p < .01 · recomputed p < .001

    “r(139) = 0.38, p < .01”

  • Consistentr(139) = 0.57reported p < .01 · recomputed p < .001

    “r(139) = 0.57, p < .01”

  • Consistentr(139) = 0.51reported p < .01 · recomputed p < .001

    “r(139) = 0.51, p < .01”

  • Consistentr(139) = -0.19reported p = .03 · recomputed p = .024

    “r(139) = −0.19, p = .03”

  • Consistentr(206) = 0.16reported p = .02 · recomputed p = .021

    “r(206) = 0.16, p = .02”

  • Consistentr(207) = 0.28reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “r(207) = 0.28, p < .001”

  • Consistentr(206) = 0.18reported p = .01 · recomputed p = .009

    “r(206) = 0.18, p = .01”

  • Consistentr(207) = 0.19reported p < .01 · recomputed p = .006

    “r(207) = 0.19, p < .01”

  • Consistentr(206) = -0.15reported p = .03 · recomputed p = .031

    “r(206) = −0.15, p = .03”

  • Consistentr(207) = -0.16reported p = .03 · recomputed p = .021

    “r(207) = −0.16, p = .03”

  • Consistentr(206) = -0.19reported p < .01 · recomputed p = .006

    “r(206) = −0.19, p < .01”

  • Consistentr(207) = -0.26reported p < .01 · recomputed p < .001

    “r(207) = −0.26, p < .01”

  • Consistentr(207) = 0.23reported p < .01 · recomputed p < .001

    “r(207) = 0.23, p < .01”

14 of 14

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Instagram academic-self-esteem result conflicts with the stated hypothesis outcome

    Major

    The Instagram results report a partial positive mediation involving academic self-esteem, but the discussion says neither exposure nor extremity mediated Instagram's relationship with academic self-esteem.

  • Abstract's R2 range omits a reported depression model

    Minor

    The abstract characterizes the self-esteem and depressive-symptom models as having R2 between 6% and 9%, while the Instagram exposure model for depressive symptoms reports 5%.

  • Study 1 figure caption names the wrong platform

    Minor

    Figure 1 describes mediation analyses of Facebook use, whereas Study 1 measured and analyzed Instagram use.

  • Upward-extremity scoring assigns zero in both directions

    Minor

    The scoring description assigns zero to upward-comparison extremity both when participants rank above the profiles and when they rank below them. The latter case is described as an upward comparison, so the two instructions conflict.

  • Study 1 figure caption names an unmeasured mediator

    Minor

    The caption says the physical-self-esteem analysis used comparison extremity, but Study 1 says it measured perceived exposure and explicitly says extremity data were not gathered.

  • Study 2 Instagram mean age differs between text and table

    Minor

    The participant description reports an Instagram mean age of 28.53, while Table 4 reports 28.35.

  • Facebook physical-self-esteem mediation is described as both partial and full

    Minor

    The Facebook results section calls the exposure-mediated relationship partial, while the Study 2 discussion calls the same relationship fully mediated.

7 of 7

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

2 of the 119 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.

Research works printed but not linked: 4

  1. Dion, 2016, The effect of Instagram on self-esteem and life satisfactionJ. Pediatr
  2. Duclos, 1996, Relations familiales et estime de soi des enfants asthmatiques de la maternelle à la troisième année
  3. Le Blanc-Brillon, 2023, Social media: the mediating effect of social comparison on self-esteem and body-esteem
  4. Rosenberg, 1965, Rosenberg self-esteem scale (RSE), Acceptance Commitment Therapy. Measures Package, 61, 18

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Le Blanc-Brillon, J., Fortin, J.-S., Lafrance, L., & Hétu, S.
Affiliations
Université de Montréal (CA)
ORCID
Hétu, Sébastien
Venue
Frontiers in Psychology
Publisher
Frontiers Media SA
Published
2025-08-08
Volume
16
Pages
1597241-1597241
ISSN
1664-1078 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1597241
PMC
PMC12370522
OpenAlex
W4413254970
Semantic Scholar
06a139806cd0ddc04166a852e0d2073d113f5b96
Cited by
16
References
119
Citations by year
2026: 15 · 2025: 1
FWCI
27.84
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Frontiers in Psychology (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed Central (submittedVersion, cc-by)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Funders
  • Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (05698, rgpin-2018-05698, RGPIN 2018)
  • Fonds de Recherche du Québec - Santé (282269)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Impact of Technology on Adolescents
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Body Image and Dysmorphia Studies
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Mental Health via Writing
Keywords
social comparison, social media use, self-esteem, physical self-esteem, depressive symptoms, upward social comparison, downward social comparison, Instagram, Facebook, social feedback, young adults, mental health, COVID-19 pandemic

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-26.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-26.

Cited sources are checked by gpt-6-sol.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

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