The DOI matches its Crossref record; 54 of the 54 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Domain-general enhancements of metacognitive ability through adaptive training.
Open accessPublished version of a preprint
Abstract
The metacognitive ability to introspect about self-performance varies substantially across individuals. Given that effective monitoring of performance is deemed important for effective behavioral control, intervening to improve metacognition may have widespread benefits, for example in educational and clinical settings. However, it is unknown whether and how metacognition can be systematically improved through training independently of task performance, or whether metacognitive improvements generalize across different task domains. Across 8 sessions, here we provided feedback to two groups of participants in a perceptual discrimination task: an experimental group (n = 29) received feedback on their metacognitive judgments, while an active control group (n = 32) received feedback on their decision performance only. Relative to the control group, adaptive training led to increases in metacognitive calibration (as assessed by Brier scores), which generalized both to untrained stimuli and an untrained task (recognition memory). Leveraging signal detection modeling we found that metacognitive improvements were driven both by changes in metacognitive efficiency (meta-d'/d') and confidence level, and that later increases in metacognitive efficiency were positively mediated by earlier shifts in confidence. Our results reveal a striking malleability of introspection and indicate the potential for a domain-general enhancement of metacognitive abilities. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved).
Overview
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“As another example, delivering feedback to improve confidence calibration over a period of two weeks shows promise in elevating metacognitive efficiency not only on the trained task but also more broadly (Carpenter et al. 2019).”
From Metacognition and Confidence: A Review and Synthesis (2024) · cites this paper as Carpenter et al. 2019
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Metacognitive interventions, such as training through feedback on metacognitive performance [30], can, for example, increase judgment accuracy-the ability to distinguish between one's own correct and incorrect metacognitive processing.”
From The Metacognitive Demands and Opportunities of Generative AI (2024) · cites this paper as [30]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Citations
Cites
Schermelleh-Engel, K., Moosbrugger, H., & Müller, H. (2003) · Department of Psychology - University of Koblenz-Landau · doi:10.23668/psycharchives.12784 · Cited by 8,975
The Psychology of Learning and Motivation
Ross, B. H. (2012) · Cited by 2,631
Metamemory: A Theoretical Framework and New Findings
Nelson, T. O. (1990) · Psychology of Learning and Motivation · doi:10.1016/s0079-7421(08)60053-5 · Cited by 2,583
Default Bayes factors for ANOVA designs
Rouder, J. N., Morey, R. D., Speckman, P. L., & Province, J. M. (2012) · Journal of Mathematical Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jmp.2012.08.001 · Cited by 1,800
Is working memory training effective? A meta-analytic review
Melby-Lervåg, M., & Hulme, C. (2013) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0028228 · Cited by 1,782
Training and plasticity of working memory
Klingberg, T. (2010) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2010.05.002 · Cited by 1,585
Fleming, S. M., & Lau, H. C. (2014) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2014.00443 · Cited by 1,408 · cited 5×
“The QSR provides a metric for how closely confidence ratings track accuracy (Staёl von Holstein, 1970), and is equal to one minus the Brier score (Fleming & Lau, 2014).”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationManiscalco, B., & Lau, H. (2012) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2011.09.021 · Cited by 883
Self-citationRelating Introspective Accuracy to Individual Differences in Brain Structure
Fleming, S. M., Weil, R. S., Nagy, Z., Dolan, R. J., & Rees, G. (2010) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1191883 · Cited by 809
Self-citationThe neural basis of metacognitive ability
Fleming, S. M., & Dolan, R. J. (2012) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2011.0417 · Cited by 747 · cited 5×
“…monitoring across a range of tasks (Fleming et al., 2010; McCurdy et al., 2013; Baird et al., 2013; Allen et al., 2016; Cortese et al., 2017; see Fleming & Dolan, 2012, for a review), suggesting the potential for targeted modulation of metacognition independently of changes in first-order…”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citation
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 2
- Kass R. E., & Raftery A. E. (1995). Bayes factors. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 90, 773– 795.
- Rosseel Y. (2012). Lavaan: An R package for structural equation modeling and more. Version 0.5-12 (BETA). Journal of Statistical Software, 48, 1– 36.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 101–173 of 173
Computational and Neuronal Basis of Visual Confidence
Goris, R. L. T., Fu, Z., & Fetsch, C. R. (2025) · Annual Review of Vision Science · doi:10.1146/annurev-vision-110323-120909 · Cited by 4
Rooha, A., Sinchana, S., Jacob, N. L., Bajaj, G., Chaudhary, C., George, V. M., & Bhat, J. S. (2025) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2025-099901 · Cited by 3
Berretta, S. A., Abaya, N. M., Parrish, E. M., McBride, L. E., Moore, R. C., Ackerman, R. A., Harvey, P. D., Pinkham, A. E., & Depp, C. A. (2025) · NPP—Digital Psychiatry and Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/s44277-024-00024-7 · Cited by 3
Grinschgl, S., Hofer, G., & Neubauer, A. C. (2025) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2025.104606 · Cited by 4
Believing in one's abilities: Ability estimates as a form of beliefs
Neubauer, A. C., & Hofer, G. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.943255 · Cited by 7
Yuki, S., Sakurai, Y., & Okanoya, K. (2019) · Animal Behavior and Cognition · doi:10.26451/abc.06.04.06.2019 · Cited by 3
Training attenuates the influence of sensory uncertainty on confidence estimation
Hall, M. G., & Dux, P. E. (2020) · Attention Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/s13414-020-01972-w · Cited by 3
SalemGarcia_2021Preprint
Salem-Garcia, N., Palminteri, S., & Lebreton, M. P. (2021) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/k7w38 · Cited by 3
Said, N., Frauhammer, L. T., & Huff, M. (2023) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/bwksd · Cited by 3
Metacognition in anxious-depression is state-dependent: an observational treatment studyPreprint
Fox, C. A., Lee, C. T., Hanlon, A. K., Seow, T. X. F., Lynch, K., Harty, S., Richards, D., Palacios, J. E., O’Keane, V., Stephan, K. E., et al. (2023) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.87193.1 · Cited by 3
Clinical and Cognitive Metacognition in Gaming and Gambling Disorder: A Narrative Review
van Holst, R. J., Cornelissen, K., Bockting, C., & Spada, M. M. (2024) · Current Addiction Reports · doi:10.1007/s40429-024-00597-5 · Cited by 4
Learning to be confident: How agents learn confidence based on prediction errors
Denmat, P. L., Desender, K., & Verguts, T. (2025) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2025.106332 · Cited by 2
Divided attention in the tactile modality
Daniel, S., Andrillon, T., Tsuchiya, N., & van Boxtel, J. J. A. (2021) · Attention Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/s13414-021-02352-8 · Cited by 2
Advancing first-person access to experience through sense of certainty training
Göken, J., & Weger, U. (2023) · New Ideas in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.newideapsych.2023.101059 · Cited by 2
Ma, Y., & Fujinami, T. (2024) · Discover Psychology · doi:10.1007/s44202-024-00258-8 · Cited by 2
Metacognition, philosophy in prisons and the demands of rehabilitation
Góis, I., & Kane, E. (2025) · The Howard Journal of Crime and Justice · doi:10.1111/hojo.12592 · Cited by 2
Neural correlates of metacognition in education: a machine learning approach
Fleur, D. S., de Groot, E. C. S., Bert Bredeweg, A., & van den Bos, W. (2025) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2025.109265 · Cited by 2
Process of Learning: Insights from Neuropsychology Studies and Asia-Pacific Perspectives
Yeo, D. J. S., Kwok, F. Y., & Chen, S. A. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-16-2327-1_44-1 · Cited by 3
Twelve tips for physicians’ mastering expertise in diagnostic excellence
Shimizu, T. (2023) · MedEdPublish · doi:10.12688/mep.19618.1 · Cited by 2
An observational treatment study of metacognition in anxious-depression
Fox, C. A., Lee, C. T., Hanlon, A., Seow, T. X. F., Lynch, K., Harty, S., Richards, D., Palacios, J., O'Keane, V., Stephan, K. E., et al. (2023) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/uk7hr · Cited by 2
Metacognitive bias resulting from trade-off between local and global motion signals
Lee, A., Yabuki, H., Lee, I. C. L., & Or, C. C.-F. (2023) · Journal of Vision · doi:10.1167/jov.23.10.7 · Cited by 1
Empowering Special Needs Children: Community Outreach for Inclusive Mathematics Education
Faradiba, S. S., Sunismi, Ilmi, Y. I. N., & Fuat, F. (2024) · International Journal of Community Service Learning · doi:10.23887/ijcsl.v8i3.80816 · Cited by 1
Zapata-Antón, J., Comay, N. A., Taricco, G., Barttfeld, P., Solovey, G., Saal, A., & Ahumada, J. V. (2024) · Experimental Psychology (formerly Zeitschrift für Experimentelle Psychologie) · doi:10.1027/1618-3169/a000636 · Cited by 2
Dynamic modulation of confidence based on the metacognitive skills of collaborators
Hermans, F., Knogler, S., Corlazzoli, G., Friedemann, M., & Desender, K. (2025) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2025.106151 · Cited by 2
Ding, Z., Chen, C., Wang, H., Wang, Y., Zhang, S., & Zhang, M. (2025) · Research in Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2025.105111 · Cited by 3
Metacognitive sensitivity predicts the quality of information search in value-based decision making
Hu, X., Li, Y., Chen, X., Jian-yuan, W., Shi, J., Guo, Q., Liu, Y., Yang, C., & Luo, L. (2025) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2025.106410 · Cited by 1
Navigating Metacognitive Disorientation: Medical Students' Experiences of Complex Tasks
Zepf, J., Koltz, E., Chinai, A., Varpio, L., Hoffman, M., & Merkebu, J. (2026) · The Clinical Teacher · doi:10.1111/tct.70339 · Cited by 2
Yu, C., & Moore, K. N. (2026) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2026.2691574 · Cited by 1
Towards an integrative neuroscience of metacognition
Fleming, S. M. (2026) · Nature reviews. Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/s41583-026-01081-x · Cited by 3
Self-citationImproved Metacognition Reviewed Based on Mathematical Resilience through Flipped Classroom
Andari, H. L. C., Susilawati, W., & Sugilar, H. (2024) · KnE Social Sciences · doi:10.18502/kss.v9i13.15936 · Cited by 1
Embon, I., Gerbaudo, M. A., Usaj, A., Iorio, A., Barttfeld, P., & Solovey, G. (2024) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-024-06669-z · Cited by 1
Metacognitive training facilitates optimal cognitive offloading
Ngai, C., & Gilbert, S. J. (2026) · Cognitive Research Principles and Implications · doi:10.1186/s41235-026-00714-0 · Cited by 6
Kausel, E. E., Carrasco, F. A., Reyes, T. H., Hirmas, A., & Rodríguez, A. (2020) · Thinking & Reasoning · doi:10.1080/13546783.2020.1837241 · Cited by 1
An observational treatment study of metacognition in anxious-depression
Fox, C. A., Lee, C. T., Hanlon, A. K., Seow, T. X., Lynch, K., Harty, S., Richards, D., Palacios, J., O'Keane, V., Stephan, K. E., et al. (2023) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.87193.3 · Cited by 1
Transdiagnostic phenotyping reveals a range of metacognitive deficits associated with compulsivityPreprint
Seow, T. X. F., & Gillan, C. M. (2019) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.17605/osf.io/2z6tw · Cited by 1
Dunn, T. L., Gaspar, C., McLean, D., Koehler, D. J., & Risko, E. F. (2020) · Technology Mind and Behavior · doi:10.1037/tmb0000039.supp · Cited by 1
How experimental procedures influence estimates of metacognitive abilityPreprint
Rahnev, D., & Fleming, S. M. (2019) · PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/u6q4p · Cited by 6
Self-citationEpisodic and semantic feeling-of-knowing in aging: a systematic review and meta-analysisPreprint
Devaluez, M., Mazancieux, A., & Souchay, C. (2022) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/x5wc7 · Cited by 1
Agnoli, S., Zuberer, A., Nanni‐Zepeda, M., Milberg, W., McGlinchey, R. E., Esterman, M. S., & Degutis, J. M. (2022) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/2agtw · Cited by 1
Metacognition in anxious-depression is state-dependent: an observational treatment study
Fox, C. A., Lee, C. T., Hanlon, A. K., Seow, T. X., Lynch, K., Harty, S., Richards, D., Palacios, J., O’Keane, V., Stephan, K. E., et al. (2023) · doi:10.7554/elife.87193.2 · Cited by 1
Unethical amnesia brain: Memory and metacognitive distortion induced by dishonestyPreprint
Xu, X. J., Mobbs, D., & Wu, H. (2024) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2024.03.03.583239 · Cited by 2
Grinschgl, S., Hofer, G., & Neubauer, A. C. (2024) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/vpmh4 · Cited by 1
The neurocognitive correlates of compulsivity
Seow, X. F. T. (2020) · Arrow@dit (Dublin Institute of Technology)
McCrossan, P., Ferris, K., Shields, M., & O’Donoghue, D. (2021) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-247424/v1
Rusyati, L., Rustaman, N. Y., Widodo, A., & Ha, M. (2021) · AIP conference proceedings · doi:10.1063/5.0041768
The cognition/metacognition tradeoffPreprint
Rosenbaum, D. M., Glickman, M., Fleming, S. M., & Usher, M. (2020) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/k7gav
Self-citationRasmijn, A. (2022) · Research Publications (Maastricht University) · doi:10.26481/dis.20220315ar
Open-Mindedness Interventions: An Integrative ReviewPreprint
Lieberman, M. D., Dieffenbach, M. C., & Dolbier, S. Y. (2023) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/rg46s
Colin, S., Geraci, C., Leybaert, J., et al. (2021) · Odile Jacob eBooks · doi:10.3917/oj.conse.2021.01.0275
Executive Functions Related to Quality of Reporting Following Police Officers’ Use of Force Training
Doyle, J. N., Campbell, M. A., & Canales, D. D. (2023) · Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology · doi:10.1007/s11896-023-09594-2
Process of Learning: Insights from Neuropsychology Studies and the Asia-Pacific Perspectives
Yeo, D. J. S., Kwok, F. Y., & Chen, S. A. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-19-6887-7_44
The Effectiveness of Metacognitive Training on Emotional Intelligence and Ego Defense Styles
Amirinia, M., Aghazadeh, P., & Baseri, A. (2024) · Psychology · doi:10.4236/psych.2024.154033
Salsabila, A., Rahmat, A., & Hamdiyati, Y. (2024) · JPBI (Jurnal Pendidikan Biologi Indonesia) · doi:10.22219/jpbi.v10i2.33297 · Cited by 4
Nagamura, H., Onishi, H., Kobayasi, K. I., & Yuki, S. (2025) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2025.1490530
Confidence and knowledge calibrations after reading an introductory text on a complex topic
Withall, M. M., Mensink, M. C., & Rapp, D. N. (2025) · Discourse Processes · doi:10.1080/0163853x.2025.2470034
Soto, D., Lallier, M., Desender, K., & Elosegi, P. (2025) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-025-02720-7
Nelson, B. K., Picon, E. L., Sayers, L., Farah, L. N., Saint, S. A., Chen, J., Sossi, V., Sekhon, M. S., Stoessl, A. J., Wellington, C. L., et al. (2025) · Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/13803395.2025.2555610
Zhang, G.-L., Zhang, J., Li, H., Liu, W., & Zhang, X. (2025) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-025-03089-x
How need for cognition affects resilience: a serial mediation model
Saha, S., & Pradhan, R. K. (2025) · Evidence-based HRM a Global Forum for Empirical Scholarship · doi:10.1108/ebhrm-05-2024-0164
Metacognitive Training in Confidence and Introspective Reaction Times JudgmentsPreprint
Aróstica, L. T., & Gabriel Reyes, M. (2026) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.6308420
Kashyap, H., Khiangte, L., Thakur, N. K., Purty, S., Randhawa, K., Kashyap, K., Kaur, K., Agarwal, A., & Shanwal, V. K. (2026) · Annals of Neurosciences · doi:10.1177/09727531261424995
Metacognitive efficiency in learned value-based choice
Ershadmanesh, S., Gholamzadeh, A., Desender, K., & Dayan, P. (2026) · PLoS Computational Biology · doi:10.1371/journal.pcbi.1014108
Towards a unified view of metacognition : Insights from metamemory
Mazancieux, A. (2020) · theses.fr (ABES) · doi:10.70675/f37dcebbz4e30z4da4za014z74039ef3666f
The Role of Metacognition in Occupational Pursuits : Evidence from Laboratory Experiments
Cavalan, Q. (2023) · theses.fr (ABES) · doi:10.70675/7fb86a89zd36fz4d73zae75zb74f435a571f
Huang, X., Wu, J., Zhou, M., & Zhang, X. (2026) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3772318.3790889
Modeling the joint impact of human and AI metacognitive sensitivity on human–AI collaboration
Li, Z., & Steyvers, M. (2026) · Journal of Mathematical Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jmp.2026.102988
Pinkham, A. E., Berretta, S. A., Abaya, N. M., Mendoza, S., Ackerman, R. A., Harvey, P. D., Moore, R. C., & Depp, C. A. (2026) · Schizophrenia Bulletin · doi:10.1093/schbul/sbag060
Visual Cues for Logical Reasoning about Text Enhance Metacognitive Sensitivity
Schlieder, A., Rummel, J., & Sadlo, F. (2026) · Computer Graphics Forum · doi:10.1111/cgf.70476
The many faces of confidence: sensitivity and meta-confidence in economic decision-making
Cavalan, Q. (2026) · Theory and Decision · doi:10.1007/s11238-026-10144-5
Dynamic Modulation of Confidence Based on the Metacognitive Skills of CollaboratorsPreprint
Corlazzoli, G., Knogler, S., Friedemann, M., Desender, K., & Hermans, F. (2026) · OSF Preprints (OSF Preprints)
No evidence for mindfulness intervention effects on metacognition in value-based decisions
Corbi, Z. L. H., Koch, K., & Soutschek, A. (2026) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2026.104134
Metadata
- Authors
- Carpenter, J., Sherman, M. T., Kievit, R. A., Seth, A. K., Lau, H., & Fleming, S. M.
- Affiliations
- University of California, Los Angeles (US)
- Wellcome Centre for Human Neuroimaging (GB)
- University of Sussex (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Fleming, Stephen M.
- Venue
- Journal of Experimental Psychology: General
- Published
- 2019-01
- Volume
- 148
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 51-64
- ISSN
- 0096-3445 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-2222
- PMC
- PMC6390881
- OpenAlex
- W2953011441
- Cited by
- 174
- References
- 54
- Citations by year
- 2026: 14 · 2025: 21 · 2024: 21 · 2023: 36 · 2022: 28 · 2021: 24 · 2020: 17 · 2019: 12
- FWCI
- 8.04
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Journal of Experimental Psychology General (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) (acceptedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Sussex Research Online (University of Sussex) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- UCL Discovery (University College London) (submittedVersion)
- Figshare (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Apollo (University of Cambridge) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Apollo (cc-by)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (R01NS088628)
- Wellcome Trust (206648/Z/17/Z)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Visual perception and processing mechanisms
- Keywords
- metacognition, metacognitive calibration, metacognitive training, self-reflection, metacognitive efficiency, confidence, feedback, perceptual discrimination, recognition memory, signal detection theory, Brier score
- MeSH terms
- Metacognition, Adult, Female, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Models, Psychological, Practice, Psychological, Task Performance and Analysis, Feedback, Psychological, Young Adult
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
