The DOI matches its Crossref record; 33 of the 33 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 3 of the 28 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
High-quality electron beams from a laser wakefield accelerator using plasma-channel guiding
Open accessAbstract
Laser-driven accelerators, in which particles are accelerated by the electric field of a plasma wave (the wakefield) driven by an intense laser, have demonstrated accelerating electric fields of hundreds of GV m(-1) (refs 1-3). These fields are thousands of times greater than those achievable in conventional radio-frequency accelerators, spurring interest in laser accelerators as compact next-generation sources of energetic electrons and radiation. To date, however, acceleration distances have been severely limited by the lack of a controllable method for extending the propagation distance of the focused laser pulse. The ensuing short acceleration distance results in low-energy beams with 100 per cent electron energy spread, which limits potential applications. Here we demonstrate a laser accelerator that produces electron beams with an energy spread of a few per cent, low emittance and increased energy (more than 10(9) electrons above 80 MeV). Our technique involves the use of a preformed plasma density channel to guide a relativistically intense laser, resulting in a longer propagation distance. The results open the way for compact and tunable high-brightness sources of electrons and radiation.
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Claims the paper makes
21 Own result · 15 No full text of the sources · 14 Own interpretation · 5 No basis given · 3 Partly supported · 3 Own method · 1 Not checked yet · accuracy not yet measured
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In the paper
“The electron energy spectrum is described by a twotemperature Boltzmann distribution characterized by a 2.6 MeV temperature below 10 MeV and an 8 MeV temperature above 10 MeV.”
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“Operating the unchannelled accelerator at the density used for the channelled accelerator (2x10 19 cm - 3 ), produced low charge low energy beams, since the intensity of the drive beam was not maintained for sufficient distance to allow acceleration at this density without channelling.”
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“The axial plasma density was within 10% of 1.9x10 19 cm -3 over the central 1.7 mm of the jet and the drive laser pulse was thus a factor of two longer than the linear plasma period, i.e. in the self-modulated regime 6 .”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [6] Esarey, E., Krall, J. & Sprangle, P. Envelope analysis of intense laser pulse self-modulation in plasmas. Phys. Rev. Lett. 72, 2887–2890 (1994) source
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In the paper
“Enlargement of the output spot compared to the input and leakage outside the guide appeared as the input intensity was increased well beyond the relativistic self focusing threshold, and are due to the inability of the channel to perfectly control the spot size in the presence of self guiding.”
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In the paper
“The bunch shows a contrast ratio greater than 10:1 above a broad distribution of charge extending on either side.”
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In the paper
“Using a separate phosphor screen placed after the magnet at a 5 degree angle to the beam we observed bunches at energies up to 150 MeV, but this diagnostic does not allow the fine resolution required to resolve energy spread.”
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In the paper
“We observed no difference between the drive pulse only and preionized cases, indicating that channeling and not pre-ionization was responsible for differences in the electron beams described above.”
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In the paper
“No electrons were accelerated at 4 TW, offering the exciting possibility of using laser injection for the controlled trapping of electrons in this plasma wave without 'dark current' 16,17 .”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [16] Umstadter, D., Kim, J. K. & Dodd, E. Laser injection of ultrashort electron pulses into wakefield plasma waves. Phys. Rev. Lett. 76, 2073–2076 (1996) source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [17] Esarey, E., Hubbard, R. F., Leemans, W. P., Ting, A. & Sprangle, P. Electron injection into plasma wake fields by colliding laser pulses. Phys. Rev. Lett. 79, 2682–2685 (1997) source
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In the paper
“The quality of optical guiding as well as the pointing, quality, and charge of the electron beams at high energy fluctuated shot to shot, likely caused by laser pointing jitter that changes the overlap between the wake drive pulse and the channel formation pulses (and hence guide quality and incoupling) as well as laser power fluctuations.”
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In the paper
“Bunches with energy up to 150 MeV have been observed on separate shots (see below).”
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- Probably not a substantial claim. 4
- It may state two separate claims as one. 31
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In the paper
“While these beams are useful for some users 9 , many applications including high energy physics and radiation sources require monoenergetic beams (percent energy spread or less) with at least 10 9 electrons [10][11][12][13] .”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [10] Leemans, W. P. et al. Observation of terahertz emission from a laser-plasma accelerated electron bunch crossing a plasma-vacuum boundary. Phys. Rev. Lett. 91, 074802 (2003) source
- Partly supportedcites [11] Catravas, P., Esarey, E. & Leemans, W. P. Femtosecond x-rays from Thomson scattering using laser wakefield accelerators. Meas. Sci. Technol. 12, 1828–1834 (2001) sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
Section II explains that a broad electron-energy distribution degrades the Thomson-scattered radiation spectrum, and the Conclusion says low energy spread enables greater peak brightness. But the paper does not state that high-energy physics and radiation-source applications require percent-level energy spread and at least 10^9 electrons together. Its narrow-spread injector example in Section III.B instead gives approximately 0.5–1.5 × 10^7 electrons. (LLM, conf=0.88)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [12] Wang, X. J., Qiu, X. & Ben-Zvi, I. Experimental observation of high-brightness microbunching in a photocathode RF electron gun. Phys. Rev. E 54, R3121–R3124 (1996) source
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In the paper
“The peak current is on the order of 10 kA with emittance comparable to the best state of the art RF facilities 11 .”
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [11] Catravas, P., Esarey, E. & Leemans, W. P. Femtosecond x-rays from Thomson scattering using laser wakefield accelerators. Meas. Sci. Technol. 12, 1828–1834 (2001) sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
In Section III, the paper reports at least 5 nC per bunch for the self-modulated laser wakefield accelerator; Table I gives a 100 fs bunch length, implying a peak current on the order of 10 kA. Table I also lists a normalized emittance of 1 mm-mrad, but the paper does not establish that this is comparable to the best state-of-the-art RF facilities. Page numbers were not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.82)
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- Partly supported
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In the paper
“Femtosecond bunches have hence been produced 25 containing 2x10 9 electrons with geometric and normalized RMS emittances ε x below 0.05 to 0.01 π-mm-mrad and below 1 to 2 π-mm-mrad RMS, respectively.”
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [25] Leemans, W. P. et al. Terahertz radiation from laser accelerated electron bunches. Phys. Plasmas 5, 2899–2906 (2004) sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Abstract reports preliminary evidence of 30–50 fs bunches, and Radiation measurements reports bunches of about 0.3 nC, approximately 2×10^9 electrons. Electron beam properties estimates a geometric rms “emittance” of 0.01 mm-mrad, but cautions that a proper emittance value requires further measurements. It does not report the claimed normalized rms emittance below 1–2 π-mm-mrad; the normalized value it mentions is 3 mm-mrad from a similar setup. (LLM, conf=0.87)
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Beams with 3x10 9 electrons have been observed at similar energies (78±3 MeV FWHM), and electrons were observed up to the limit of our 55 degree high resolution spectrometer (92 MeV).”
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In the paper
“At 9 TW the mode image showed an intense output spot of 24 µm FWHM (Fig. 2b), slightly larger than the input spot but much smaller than the unguided pulse (Fig. 2d).”
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In the paper
“As shown in Fig. 3, the channel guided accelerator produced high charge electron beams with small energy spread at high energy, a unique feature that has not been observed in previous laser plasma acceleration experiments.”
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In the paper
“Below 15 MeV there is an essentially continuous distribution, and total beam charge was 1.7x10 10 electrons as measured by the ICT, subtending f/8.”
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In the paper
“Structure in the energy spectrum did occur occasionally in the tail of the distribution above 15 MeV containing < 2% of the charge, consistent with a beam accelerated over a short distance and with previous experiments 1,2,9 .”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [1] Modena, A. et al. Electron acceleration from the breaking of relativistic plasma waves. Nature 377, 606–608 (1995) source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [2] Malka, V. et al. Electron acceleration by a wake field forced by an intense ultrashort laser pulse. Science 298, 1596–1600 (2002) source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [9] Leemans, W. P. et al. Gamma-neutron activation experiments using laser wakefield accelerators. Phys. Plasmas 8, 2510–2516 (2001) source
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In the paper
“For the data shown in Fig. 3, the ±2% energy spread of the peak centered at 86 MeV is essentially limited by the spectrometer resolution so that the beam may in fact have narrower energy spread.”
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In the paper
“Electrons were trapped and accelerated using a 9 TW drive pulse, and optimal performance was found in channels detuned slightly from the low power guiding condition, with 40% less rise in density over the spot diameter than a matched channel 19 .”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [19] Volfbeyn, P., Esarey, E. & Leemans, W. P. Guiding of laser pulses in plasma channels created by the ignitor-heater technique. Phys. Plasmas 6, 2269–2277 (1999) source
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In the paper
“Guiding efficiency at 4 TW was 35%, a reduction of 20% compared to the low power case (0.5 TW), suggesting that a significant amount of laser energy was depleted by excitation a plasma wave.”
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In the paper
“The electron beam had a total charge of 1.5x10 10 electrons, as measured by the ICT, with divergence near 50 mrad FWHM.”
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In the paper
“The investment of power in channel formation is less than 5% of the drive pulse power (20% of the energy), yet spectral density of these beams near 80 MeV is at least a factor of 200 above previous unchannelled experiments using several times the laser power, and peak energy observed is comparable 2 .”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [2] Malka, V. et al. Electron acceleration by a wake field forced by an intense ultrashort laser pulse. Science 298, 1596–1600 (2002) source
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In the paper
“As seen in Fig 2 c and d, the laser pulse diffracted strongly, limiting the acceleration length.”
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In the paper
“Using a 600 µm long plasma at 4x10 19 /cm 3 , which is close to the dephasing length observed in PIC simulations at this density, the un channelled accelerator produced the same peak energy as in the 2 mm plasma, but with more structure in the spectrum.”
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In the paper
“Plasma density was independently optimized for the unchannelled accelerator, and highest charge and electron energies were obtained at 4x10 19 cm -3 .”
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In the paper
“For example, using a 32 TW laser bunches with more than 10 10 electrons were produced but less than 1% were above 60 MeV 2 .”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [2] Malka, V. et al. Electron acceleration by a wake field forced by an intense ultrashort laser pulse. Science 298, 1596–1600 (2002) source
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In the paper
“To differentiate the effects of channeling from pre-ionization, the ignitor pulse was fired 80 ps before the drive pulse.”
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In the paper
“These results confirm that matching accelerator length to dephasing length is critical for structuring the spectrum, and that extending the length (for instance using a channel at lower density) results in higher energies.”
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In the paper
“Large plasma waves, or wakes, can be driven by the radiation pressure of the intense laser, but the propagation length is limited to little more than the diffraction or Rayleigh length Z R 8 .”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [8] Najmudin, Z. et al. Self-modulated wakefield and forced laser wakefield acceleration of electrons. Phys. Plasmas 10, 2071–2077 (2003) source
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In the paper
“The quality of optical guiding as well as the pointing, quality, and charge of the electron beams at high energy fluctuated shot to shot, likely caused by laser pointing jitter that changes the overlap between the wake drive pulse and the channel formation pulses (and hence guide quality and incoupling) as well as laser power fluctuations.”
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In the paper
“The narrow energy spread of the channel produced beams is consistent with simulations which also indicate that the bunch length is near 10 fs.”
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In the paper
“The best results have hence been obtained by increasing the laser spot size to increase Z R , requiring ever greater laser power, but this approach has still been limited to distances of a few hundred micron 8 .”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [8] Najmudin, Z. et al. Self-modulated wakefield and forced laser wakefield acceleration of electrons. Phys. Plasmas 10, 2071–2077 (2003) source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“In this so called self-modulated wakefield regime 6 some self-guiding of the laser pulse occurs due to relativistic modification of the plasma refractive index, but the laser pulse is highly unstable 7 .”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [6] Esarey, E., Krall, J. & Sprangle, P. Envelope analysis of intense laser pulse self-modulation in plasmas. Phys. Rev. Lett. 72, 2887–2890 (1994) source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [7] Esarey, E., Sprangle, P., Krall, J. & Ting, A. Self-focusing and guiding of short laser pulses in ionizing gases and plasmas. IEEE J. Quant. Electron. 33, 1879–1914 (1997) source
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In the paper
“The dephasing length and maximum energy increase as density decreases, so that accelerator lengths of several cm and energies up to several GeV/stage are then possible 5 .”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [5] Esarey, E., Sprangle, P., Krall, J. & Ting, A. Overview of plasma-based accelerator concepts. IEEE Trans. Plasma Sci. 24, 252–288 (1996) source
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In the paper
“Much as in a RF accelerator where cavities provide confinement and field shaping for the RF-power, the plasma channel guides the laser beam and transversely shapes the plasma wakes.”
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In the paper
“To reach high intensities with a typical 10 TW peak power laser system operating at 800 nm, the laser pulse must be focused to spot sizes near 8 µm, giving Z R ~200 µm and necessitating guiding over many Z R in order to reach the dephasing condition and high energies.”
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In the paper
“The high density allowed acceleration before the laser diffracted since self modulation and dephasing both occur more quickly at high density, but this also reduced the peak energy compared to the channelled case.”
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In the paper
“This dephasing condition can alternatively be met by a short plasma at high density (see below) or by using a larger laser spot size to extend Z R , but these alternatives are less efficient since high density lowers peak energy while large spot size requires many times greater laser power.”
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In the paper
“Only one accelerating bucket contributes to the high energy beam due to beam loading in these simulations, so that the bunch length is less than a plasma period; for the experimental parameters the bunch length is near 10 fs FWHM.”
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The beams from channel guided accelerators such as those described here, with a few 10 9 electrons in percent level energy spread and mrad divergence as well as intrinsic synchronization to the laser beam, open up a new class of experiments with laser accelerators.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“A parabolic transverse density profile can be matched to guide a Gaussian laser mode without distortion in the low intensity limit, and guiding has been previously demonstrated [18][19][20][21] over many Z R at input intensities below 2x10 17 W/cm 2 .”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [18] Durfee, C. G. & Milchberg, H. M. Light pipe for high intensity laser pulses. Phys. Rev. Lett. 71, 2409–2412 (1993) source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [19] Volfbeyn, P., Esarey, E. & Leemans, W. P. Guiding of laser pulses in plasma channels created by the ignitor-heater technique. Phys. Plasmas 6, 2269–2277 (1999) source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [20] Kim, K. Y., Alexeev, I., Fan, J., Parra, E. & Milchberg, H. M. Plasma waveguides: Addition of end funnels and generation in clustered gases. AIP Conf. Proc. 647, 646–653 (2002) source
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The channelling technology offers the ability to control the laser beam propagation much as a copper structure provides guiding and field shaping to RF accelerators.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“For optimum acceleration, accelerator length should be matched to the dephasing length, which is the distance it takes the accelerated electrons to outrun the plasma wave and slip into decelerating phase 15 .”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [15] Leemans, W. P. et al. Plasma guiding and wakefield generation for second-generation experiments. IEEE Trans. Plasma Sci. 24, 331–342 (1996) source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
The paper relies on this without support.
The plasma does not expand significantly over 80 ps.
“The plasma does not expand significantly over 80 ps, so there was no shock wave and the transverse density profile was flat and had no guiding properties.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Space charge effects are minimal for this relativistic beam.
“Space charge effects should be minimal for this relativistic beam, so assuming ballistic propagation from a source the size of the laser spot in the channel (8.5 µm at entrance, 24 µm at exit), an upper limit for the emittance can be obtained.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
The electron beam propagates ballistically from a source the size of the laser spot in the channel.
“Space charge effects should be minimal for this relativistic beam, so assuming ballistic propagation from a source the size of the laser spot in the channel (8.5 µm at entrance, 24 µm at exit), an upper limit for the emittance can be obtained.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The slower phase velocity of the wake at high plasma density allows trapping of background plasma electrons yielding high charge electron beams without a separate injector.
“This regime was chosen to allow comparison to unchannelled experiments, and also because the slower phase velocity of the wake at high plasma density allows trapping of background plasma electrons yielding high charge electron beams without a separate injector.”
The paper relies on this without support.
At high densities, where the laser pulse length is longer than the plasma wavelength, the laser can self-modulate resulting in large plasma waves that trap particles from the bulk plasma.
“At high densities, where the laser pulse length is longer than the plasma wavelength, the laser can self-modulate resulting in large plasma waves that trap particles from the bulk plasma.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Intensities below 2x10^17 W/cm2 are too low to trap and accelerate electrons.
“Such intensities are too low to trap and accelerate electrons.”
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“Recent experiments [2], [6], [7] and simulations [3] show that, in the so-called bubble regime of the LWFA, quasimonoenergetic electron bunches can be accelerated from the background population of electrons up to high (> 100 MeV) energies.”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Geddes, C. G. R., Toth, C., van Tilborg, J., Esarey, E., Schroeder, C. B., Bruhwiler, D., Nieter, C., Cary, J., & Leemans, W. P.
- Affiliations
- Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (US)
- Tech-X Corporation (United States) (US)
- University of Colorado Boulder (US)
- Corresponding author
- Leemans, W. P.
- Venue
- Nature
- Published
- 2004-09
- Volume
- 431
- Issue
- 7008
- Pages
- 538-541
- ISSN
- 0028-0836 (ISSN-L)
- 1476-4687
- OpenAlex
- W2035607724
- Cited by
- 2,001
- References
- 30
- Citations by year
- 2026: 40 · 2025: 67 · 2024: 62 · 2023: 71 · 2022: 62 · 2021: 90 · 2020: 95 · 2019: 91 · 2018: 113 · 2017: 87 · 2016: 110 · 2015: 93 · 2014: 79 · 2013: 88 · 2012: 94
- FWCI
- 54.54
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- Licence
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- Locations
- Nature (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- University of North Texas Digital Library (University of North Texas) (submittedVersion)
- TU/e Research Portal (submittedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- OSTI OAI (U.S. Department of Energy Office of Scientific and Technical Information) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Nuclear and High Energy Physics › Laser-Plasma Interactions and Diagnostics
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Particle Accelerators and Free-Electron Lasers
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Nuclear and High Energy Physics › Particle accelerators and beam dynamics
- Keywords
- laser wakefield acceleration, electron beam, electron beam energy spread, beam emittance, plasma waves, radiation sources
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