CoChat
Sign Up
Cited by 423T-cell and B-cell ImmunologyCell Adhesion Molecules ResearchCellular Mechanics and Interactions

T cell migration, search strategies and mechanisms

Open access
Krummel, Matthew F., Bartumeus, Frederic, Gérard, Audrey·2016·Nature Reviews Immunology
DOI 10.1038/nri.2015.16PMC PMC4869523
Open this paper in CoChat — free account

Abstract

T cell migration is essential for T cell responses; it allows for the detection of cognate antigen at the surface of antigen-presenting cells and for interactions with other cells involved in the immune response. Although appearing random, growing evidence suggests that T cell motility patterns are strategic and governed by mechanisms that are optimized for both the activation stage of the cell and for environment-specific cues. In this Opinion article, we discuss how the combined effects of T cell-intrinsic and -extrinsic forces influence T cell motility patterns in the context of highly complex tissues that are filled with other cells involved in parallel motility. In particular, we examine how insights from 'search theory' can be used to describe T cell movement across an 'exploitation-exploration trade-off' in the context of activation versus effector function and lymph nodes versus peripheral tissues.

The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.

Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.

A few free checks a day · papers already verified open instantly · results are public

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1038/nri.2015.16

Cites

5 of 5 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Claims the paper makes

The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.

Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.

A few free checks a day · papers already verified open instantly · results are public

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • Most naïve and memory T cells and B cells constantly recirculate between the blood and different lymph nodes and other secondary lymphoid organs such as the spleen, maximizing their chances of encountering their specific antigens during infection.

    “Most naïve and memory T cells and B cells constantly recirculate between the blood and different lymph nodes and other secondary lymphoid organs such as the spleen, maximizing their chances of encountering their specific antigens during infection (27, 85).”

    From Transport and Immune Functions of the Lymphatic System. (2025) · cites this paper as [85]

    Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 2 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

The self-check needs the paper’s full text.

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 108

  1. [1]Blattman JN Estimating the precursor frequency of naive antigen-specific CD8 T cells J Exp Med 2002 195 657 64 11877489 PMC2193761
  2. [2]Jenkins MK Chu HH McLachlan JB Moon JJ On the composition of the preimmune repertoire of T cells specific for Peptide-major histocompatibility complex ligands Annu Rev Immunol 2010 28 275 94 20307209
  3. [3]Yu W Clonal Deletion Prunes but Does Not Eliminate Self-Specific alphabeta CD8(+) T Lymphocytes Immunity 2015 42 929 41 25992863 PMC4455602
  4. [4]Bajenoff M Highways, byways and breadcrumbs: directing lymphocyte traffic in the lymph node Trends Immunol 2007 28 346 52 17625969
  5. [5]Fu H Wang A Mauro C Marelli-Berg F T lymphocyte trafficking: molecules and mechanisms Front Biosci (Landmark Ed) 2013 18 422 40 23276933
  6. [6]Ley K The second touch hypothesis: T cell activation, homing and polarization F1000Res 2014 3 37 25580220 PMC4038319
  7. [7]Hills TT Todd PM Lazer D Redish AD Couzin ID Exploration versus exploitation in space, mind, and society Trends Cogn Sci 2015 19 46 54 25487706 PMC4410143
  8. [9]Miller MJ Wei SH Cahalan MD Parker I Autonomous T cell trafficking examined in vivo with intravital two-photon microscopy Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2003 100 2604 9 12601158 PMC151387
  9. [10]Cahalan MD Parker I Choreography of cell motility and interaction dynamics imaged by two-photon microscopy in lymphoid organs Annu Rev Immunol 2008 26 585 626 18173372 PMC2732400
  10. [11]Harris TH Generalized Levy walks and the role of chemokines in migration of effector CD8+ T cells Nature 2012 486 545 8 22722867 PMC3387349
  11. [12]Worbs T Mempel TR Bolter J von Andrian UH Forster R CCR7 ligands stimulate the intranodal motility of T lymphocytes in vivo J Exp Med 2007 204 489 95 17325198 PMC2137901
  12. [13]Witt CM Raychaudhuri S Schaefer B Chakraborty AK Robey EA Directed migration of positively selected thymocytes visualized in real time PLoS Biol 2005 3 e160 15869324 PMC1088277
  13. [14]James A Plank MJ Brown R Optimizing the encounter rate in biological interactions: Ballistic versus Levy versus Brownian strategies Physical Review E 2008 78 19113116
  14. [15]Krummel MF Sjaastad MD Wulfing C Davis MM Differential clustering of CD4 and CD3zeta during T cell recognition Science 2000 289 1349 52 10958781
  15. [16]Wulfing C Kinetics and extent of T cell activation as measured with the calcium signal J Exp Med 1997 185 1815 25 9151707 PMC2196319
  16. [17]Beauchemin C Dixit NM Perelson AS Characterizing T cell movement within lymph nodes in the absence of antigen J Immunol 2007 178 5505 12 17442932
  17. [18]Beltman JB Henrickson SE von Andrian UH de Boer RJ Maree AF Towards estimating the true duration of dendritic cell interactions with T cells J Immunol Methods 2009 347 54 69 19520083 PMC4028046
  18. [19]Preston SP Waters SL Jensen OE Heaton PR Pritchard DI T-cell motility in the early stages of the immune response modeled as a random walk amongst targets Phys Rev E Stat Nonlin Soft Matter Phys 2006 74 011910 16907130
  19. [20]Textor J Defining the quantitative limits of intravital two-photon lymphocyte tracking Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2011 108 12401 6 21734152 PMC3145739
  20. [21]Mrass P Petravic J Davenport MP Weninger W Cell-autonomous and environmental contributions to the interstitial migration of T cells Semin Immunopathol 2010 32 257 74 20623124 PMC2937148
  21. [22]Miller MJ Wei SH Parker I Cahalan MD Two-photon imaging of lymphocyte motility and antigen response in intact lymph node Science 2002 296 1869 73 12016203
  22. [24]Méndez V C.D.a.B.F. Stochastic Foundations in Movement Ecology 2014 Springer
  23. [25]Beltman JB Maree AF Lynch JN Miller MJ de Boer RJ Lymph node topology dictates T cell migration behavior J Exp Med 2007 204 771 80 17389236 PMC2118562
  24. [26]Woolf E Lymph node chemokines promote sustained T lymphocyte motility without triggering stable integrin adhesiveness in the absence of shear forces Nat Immunol 2007 8 1076 85 17721537
  25. [27]Lammermann T Rapid leukocyte migration by integrin-independent flowing and squeezing Nature 2008 453 51 5 18451854
  26. [28]Katakai T Habiro K Kinashi T Dendritic cells regulate high-speed interstitial T cell migration in the lymph node via LFA-1/ICAM-1 J Immunol 2013 191 1188 99 23817428
  27. [29]Banigan EJ Harris TH Christian DA Hunter CA Liu AJ Heterogeneous CD8+ T cell migration in the lymph node in the absence of inflammation revealed by quantitative migration analysis PLoS Comput Biol 2015 11 e1004058 25692801 PMC4334969
  28. [30]Bajenoff M Stromal cell networks regulate lymphocyte entry, migration, and territoriality in lymph nodes Immunity 2006 25 989 1001 17112751 PMC2692293
  29. [31]Katakai T Hara T Sugai M Gonda H Shimizu A Lymph node fibroblastic reticular cells construct the stromal reticulum via contact with lymphocytes J Exp Med 2004 200 783 95 15381731 PMC2211971
  30. [32]Mempel TR Junt T von Andrian UH Rulers over randomness: stroma cells guide lymphocyte migration in lymph nodes Immunity 2006 25 867 9 17174930
  31. [33]Malhotra D Transcriptional profiling of stroma from inflamed and resting lymph nodes defines immunological hallmarks Nat Immunol 2012 13 499 510 22466668 PMC3366863
  32. [34]Luther SA Tang HL Hyman PL Farr AG Cyster JG Coexpression of the chemokines ELC and SLC by T zone stromal cells and deletion of the ELC gene in the plt/plt mouse Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2000 97 12694 9 11070085 PMC18826
  33. [35]Asperti-Boursin F Real E Bismuth G Trautmann A Donnadieu E CCR7 ligands control basal T cell motility within lymph node slices in a phosphoinositide 3-kinase-independent manner J Exp Med 2007 204 1167 79 17485513 PMC2118589
  34. [36]Katakai T Kondo N Ueda Y Kinashi T Autotaxin produced by stromal cells promotes LFA-1-independent and Rho-dependent interstitial T cell motility in the lymph node paracortex J Immunol 2014 193 617 26 24935929
  35. [37]Graw F Regoes RR Influence of the fibroblastic reticular network on cell-cell interactions in lymphoid organs PLoS Comput Biol 2012 8 e1002436 22457613 PMC3310707
  36. [38]Gerard A Detection of Rare Antigen-Presenting Cells through T Cell-Intrinsic Meandering Motility, Mediated by Myo1g Cell 2014 158 492 505 25083865 PMC4119593
  37. [39]Bartumeus F Raposo EP Viswanathan GM da Luz MG Stochastic optimal foraging: tuning intensive and extensive dynamics in random searches PLoS One 2014 9 e106373 25216191 PMC4162546
  38. [40]Mandl JN Quantification of lymph node transit times reveals differences in antigen surveillance strategies of naive CD4+ and CD8+ T cells Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2012 109 18036 41 23071319 PMC3497782
  39. [41]Friedl P Gunzer M Interaction of T cells with APCs: the serial encounter model Trends Immunol 2001 22 187 91 11274922
  40. [42]Gunzer M Antigen presentation in extracellular matrix: interactions of T cells with dendritic cells are dynamic, short lived, and sequential Immunity 2000 13 323 32 11021530
  41. [43]Moreau HD Signal strength regulates antigen-mediated T-cell deceleration by distinct mechanisms to promote local exploration or arrest Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2015 112 12151 6 26371316 PMC4593123
  42. [45]Badovinac VP Messingham KA Jabbari A Haring JS Harty JT Accelerated CD8+ T-cell memory and prime-boost response after dendritic-cell vaccination Nat Med 2005 11 748 56 15951824
  43. [46]Kaech SM Wherry EJ Heterogeneity and cell-fate decisions in effector and memory CD8+ T cell differentiation during viral infection Immunity 2007 27 393 405 17892848 PMC3431921
  44. [47]Gerner MY Torabi-Parizi P Germain RN Strategically localized dendritic cells promote rapid T cell responses to lymph-borne particulate antigens Immunity 2015 42 172 85 25607462
  45. [48]Woodruff MC Trans-nodal migration of resident dendritic cells into medullary interfollicular regions initiates immunity to influenza vaccine J Exp Med 2014 211 1611 21 25049334 PMC4113935
  46. [49]Gerard A Secondary T cell-T cell synaptic interactions drive the differentiation of protective CD8+ T cells Nat Immunol 2013 14 356 63 23475183 PMC3962671
  47. [50]Sabatos CA A synaptic basis for paracrine interleukin-2 signaling during homotypic T cell interaction Immunity 2008 29 238 48 18674934 PMC4466225
  48. [51]Ferguson AR Engelhard VH CD8 T cells activated in distinct lymphoid organs differentially express adhesion proteins and coexpress multiple chemokine receptors J Immunol 2010 184 4079 86 20212096 PMC2887738
  49. [52]Sallusto F Switch in chemokine receptor expression upon TCR stimulation reveals novel homing potential for recently activated T cells Eur J Immunol 1999 29 2037 45 10382767
  50. [53]Mueller SN Regulation of homeostatic chemokine expression and cell trafficking during immune responses Science 2007 317 670 4 17673664
  51. [54]Castellino F Chemokines enhance immunity by guiding naive CD8+ T cells to sites of CD4+ T cell-dendritic cell interaction Nature 2006 440 890 5 16612374
  52. [55]Hugues S Dynamic imaging of chemokine-dependent CD8+ T cell help for CD8+ T cell responses Nat Immunol 2007 8 921 30 17660821
  53. [56]Hickman HD Chemokines control naive CD8+ T cell selection of optimal lymph node antigen presenting cells J Exp Med 2011 208 2511 24 22042976 PMC3256957
  54. [57]Eickhoff S Robust Anti-viral Immunity Requires Multiple Distinct T Cell-Dendritic Cell Interactions Cell 2015 PMC4567961 26296422
  55. [58]Hor JL Spatiotemporally Distinct Interactions with Dendritic Cell Subsets Facilitates CD4 and CD8 T Cell Activation to Localized Viral Infection Immunity 2015 26297566
  56. [59]Kelner GS Lymphotactin: a cytokine that represents a new class of chemokine Science 1994 266 1395 9 7973732
  57. [60]Dorner BG Selective expression of the chemokine receptor XCR1 on cross-presenting dendritic cells determines cooperation with CD8+ T cells Immunity 2009 31 823 33 19913446
  58. [61]Lei Y Takahama Y XCL1 and XCR1 in the immune system Microbes Infect 2012 14 262 7 22100876
  59. [62]Groom JR CXCR3 chemokine receptor-ligand interactions in the lymph node optimize CD4+ T helper 1 cell differentiation Immunity 2012 37 1091 103 23123063 PMC3525757
  60. [63]Hu JK Kagari T Clingan JM Matloubian M Expression of chemokine receptor CXCR3 on T cells affects the balance between effector and memory CD8 T-cell generation Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2011 108 E118 27 21518913 PMC3102421
  61. [64]Kurachi M Chemokine receptor CXCR3 facilitates CD8(+) T cell differentiation into short-lived effector cells leading to memory degeneration J Exp Med 2011 208 1605 20 21788406 PMC3149224
  62. [65]Campbell DJ Kim CH Butcher EC Separable effector T cell populations specialized for B cell help or tissue inflammation Nat Immunol 2001 2 876 81 11526405
  63. [66]Reif K Balanced responsiveness to chemoattractants from adjacent zones determines B-cell position Nature 2002 416 94 9 11882900
  64. [67]Okada T Antigen-engaged B cells undergo chemotaxis toward the T zone and form motile conjugates with helper T cells PLoS Biol 2005 3 e150 15857154 PMC1088276
  65. [68]Mempel TR Henrickson SE Von Andrian UH T-cell priming by dendritic cells in lymph nodes occurs in three distinct phases Nature 2004 427 154 9 14712275
  66. [69]Tan JT Surh CD T cell memory Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 2006 311 85 115 17048706
  67. [70]Kastenmuller W Peripheral prepositioning and local CXCL9 chemokine-mediated guidance orchestrate rapid memory CD8+ T cell responses in the lymph node Immunity 2013 38 502 13 23352234 PMC3793246
  68. [71]Sung JH Chemokine guidance of central memory T cells is critical for antiviral recall responses in lymph nodes Cell 2012 150 1249 63 22980984 PMC3445043
  69. [73]Griffith JW Sokol CL Luster AD Chemokines and chemokine receptors: positioning cells for host defense and immunity Annu Rev Immunol 2014 32 659 702 24655300
  70. [74]Marelli-Berg FM Cannella L Dazzi F Mirenda V The highway code of T cell trafficking J Pathol 2008 214 179 89 18161751
  71. [75]Bromley SK Mempel TR Luster AD Orchestrating the orchestrators: chemokines in control of T cell traffic Nat Immunol 2008 9 970 80 18711434
  72. [76]Guo L Innate immunological function of TH2 cells in vivo Nat Immunol 2015 16 1051 9 26322482 PMC4575627
  73. [77]Broz ML Dissecting the tumor myeloid compartment reveals rare activating antigen-presenting cells critical for T cell immunity Cancer Cell 2014 26 638 52 25446897 PMC4254577
  74. [78]Chang TT Jabs C Sobel RA Kuchroo VK Sharpe AH Studies in B7-deficient mice reveal a critical role for B7 costimulation in both induction and effector phases of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis J Exp Med 1999 190 733 40 10477557 PMC2195617
  75. [79]Krummel MF Heath WR Allison J Differential coupling of second signals for cytotoxicity and proliferation in CD8+ T cell effectors: amplification of the lytic potential by B7 J Immunol 1999 163 2999 3006 10477562
  76. [80]Lindsay RS Antigen recognition in the islets changes with progression of autoimmune islet infiltration J Immunol 2015 194 522 30 25505281 PMC4282963
  77. [81]Friedman RS An evolving autoimmune microenvironment regulates the quality of effector T cell restimulation and function Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2014 111 9223 8 24927530 PMC4078867
  78. [82]Thornton EE Spatiotemporally separated antigen uptake by alveolar dendritic cells and airway presentation to T cells in the lung J Exp Med 2012 209 1183 99 22585735 PMC3371730
  79. [83]Overstreet MG Inflammation-induced interstitial migration of effector CD4(+) T cells is dependent on integrin alphaV Nat Immunol 2013 14 949 58 23933892 PMC4159184
  80. [84]Honda T Tuning of antigen sensitivity by T cell receptor-dependent negative feedback controls T cell effector function in inflamed tissues Immunity 2014 40 235 47 24440150 PMC4792276
  81. [85]Sorokin L The impact of the extracellular matrix on inflammation Nat Rev Immunol 2010 10 712 23 20865019
  82. [86]DiMilla PA Barbee K Lauffenburger DA Mathematical model for the effects of adhesion and mechanics on cell migration speed Biophys J 1991 60 15 37 1883934 PMC1260035
  83. [87]Baron JL Reich EP Visintin I Janeway CA Jr. The pathogenesis of adoptive murine autoimmune diabetes requires an interaction between alpha 4-integrins and vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 J Clin Invest 1994 93 1700 8 7512990 PMC294222
  84. [88]Ray SJ The collagen binding alpha1beta1 integrin VLA-1 regulates CD8 T cell-mediated immune protection against heterologous influenza infection Immunity 2004 20 167 79 14975239
  85. [89]Richter M Collagen distribution and expression of collagen-binding alpha1beta1 (VLA-1) and alpha2beta1 (VLA-2) integrins on CD4 and CD8 T cells during influenza infection J Immunol 2007 178 4506 16 17372009
  86. [90]Natsuaki Y Perivascular leukocyte clusters are essential for efficient activation of effector T cells in the skin Nat Immunol 2014 15 1064 9 25240383
  87. [91]Hickman HD CXCR3 chemokine receptor enables local CD8(+) T cell migration for the destruction of virus-infected cells Immunity 2015 42 524 37 25769612 PMC4365427
  88. [92]Groom JR Luster AD CXCR3 in T cell function Exp Cell Res 2011 317 620 31 21376175 PMC3065205
  89. [93]Ariotti S Subtle CXCR3-Dependent Chemotaxis of CTLs within Infected Tissue Allows Efficient Target Localization J Immunol 2015 26525288
  90. [94]Wilson EH Behavior of parasite-specific effector CD8+ T cells in the brain and visualization of a kinesis-associated system of reticular fibers Immunity 2009 30 300 11 19167248 PMC2696229
  91. [95]Herz J In vivo imaging of lymphocytes in the CNS reveals different behaviour of naive T cells in health and autoimmunity J Neuroinflammation 2011 8 131 21978405 PMC3206448
  92. [96]Bartholomaus I Effector T cell interactions with meningeal vascular structures in nascent autoimmune CNS lesions Nature 2009 462 94 8 19829296
  93. [97]Kim JV Two-photon laser scanning microscopy imaging of intact spinal cord and cerebral cortex reveals requirement for CXCR6 and neuroinflammation in immune cell infiltration of cortical injury sites J Immunol Methods 2010 352 89 100 19800886 PMC2808463
  94. [99]Engelhardt JJ Marginating dendritic cells of the tumor microenvironment cross-present tumor antigens and stably engage tumor-specific T cells Cancer Cell 2012 21 402 17 22439936 PMC3311997
  95. [100]Joyce JA Fearon DT T cell exclusion, immune privilege, and the tumor microenvironment Science 2015 348 74 80 25838376
  96. [101]Mrass P Random migration precedes stable target cell interactions of tumor-infiltrating T cells J Exp Med 2006 203 2749 61 17116735 PMC2118164
  97. [102]Salmon H Matrix architecture defines the preferential localization and migration of T cells into the stroma of human lung tumors J Clin Invest 2012 122 899 910 22293174 PMC3287213
  98. [103]Mrass P CD44 mediates successful interstitial navigation by killer T cells and enables efficient antitumor immunity Immunity 2008 29 971 85 19100702 PMC2757129
  99. [105]Boissonnas A CD8+ tumor-infiltrating T cells are trapped in the tumor-dendritic cell network Neoplasia 2013 15 85 94 23359264 PMC3556941
  100. [106]de Jager M How superdiffusion gets arrested: ecological encounters explain shift from Levy to Brownian movement Proceedings of the Royal Society B-Biological Sciences 2014 281 PMC3843843 24225464
  101. [107]Bartumeus F Behavioural ecology cannot turn its back on Levy walk research: Comment on “Liberating Levy walk research from the shackles of optimal foraging” by A.M. Reynolds Physics of Life Reviews 2015 14 26138591
  102. [108]Letendre K Donnadieu E Moses ME Cannon JL Bringing statistics up to speed with data in analysis of lymphocyte motility PLoS One 2015 10 e0126333 25973755 PMC4431811
  103. [109]Viswanathan GM d.L. MGE Raposo EP Stanley HE The Physics of Foraging 2011 Cambridge University Press
  104. [110]Dieterich P Klages R Preuss R Schwab A Anomalous dynamics of cell migration Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2008 105 459 63 18182493 PMC2206558
  105. [112]Mischiati M Internal models direct dragonfly interception steering Nature 2015 517 333 8 25487153
  106. [113]Lima SL Zollner PA Towards a behavioral ecology of ecological landscapes Trends Ecol Evol 1996 11 131 5 21237783
  107. [114]Nathan R A movement ecology paradigm for unifying organismal movement research Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2008 105 19052 9 19060196 PMC2614714
  108. [115]Campos D Bartumeus F Mendez V Search times with arbitrary detection constraints Physical Review E 2013 88 24032769

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Authors
Krummel, M. F., Bartumeus, F., & Gérard, A.
Affiliations
  • University of California, San Francisco (US)
  • Institució Catalana de Recerca i Estudis Avançats (ES)
Corresponding author
Krummel, Matthew F.
ORCID
Venue
Nature Reviews Immunology
Publisher
Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published
2016-02-08
Volume
16
Issue
3
Pages
193-201
ISSN
  • 1474-1733 (ISSN-L)
  • 1474-1741
DOI
10.1038/nri.2015.16
PMC
PMC4869523
OpenAlex
W2261563054
Cited by
423
References
5
Citations by year
2026: 30 · 2025: 50 · 2024: 42 · 2023: 51 · 2022: 45 · 2021: 60 · 2020: 33 · 2019: 37 · 2018: 40 · 2017: 28 · 2016: 7
FWCI
3.60
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Nature reviews. Immunology (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
  • DIGITAL.CSIC (Spanish National Research Council (CSIC)) (submittedVersion)
Funders
  • National Institutes of Health
  • National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (R01AI114787, R01AI052116, R03AI119220)
Topics
  • Life Sciences › Immunology and Microbiology › Immunology › T-cell and B-cell Immunology
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Immunology and Allergy › Cell Adhesion Molecules Research
  • Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Cell Biology › Cellular Mechanics and Interactions
Keywords
T cell migration, T cell motility, search theory, exploration-exploitation balance, T cell activation, effector T cells, lymph nodes, peripheral tissues, antigen-presenting cells
MeSH terms
Animals, Chemotaxis, Leukocyte, Humans, Lymphocyte Activation, T-Lymphocytes, Models, Immunological

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review