CoChat
Sign Up
Cited by 986Lipid metabolism and biosynthesisCancer, Lipids, and MetabolismLipid metabolism and disorders

The biophysics and cell biology of lipid droplets

Open access
Thiam, Abdou Rachid, Farese Jr, Robert V., Walther, Tobias C.·2013·Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology
DOI 10.1038/nrm3699PMC PMC4526153
Open this paper in CoChat — free account

Abstract

Lipid droplets are intracellular organelles that are found in most cells, where they have fundamental roles in metabolism. They function prominently in storing oil-based reserves of metabolic energy and components of membrane lipids. Lipid droplets are the dispersed phase of an oil-in-water emulsion in the aqueous cytosol of cells, and the importance of basic biophysical principles of emulsions for lipid droplet biology is now being appreciated. Because of their unique architecture, with an interface between the dispersed oil phase and the aqueous cytosol, specific mechanisms underlie their formation, growth and shrinkage. Such mechanisms enable cells to use emulsified oil when the demands for metabolic energy or membrane synthesis change. The regulation of the composition of the phospholipid surfactants at the surface of lipid droplets is crucial for lipid droplet homeostasis and protein targeting to their surfaces.

The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.

Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.

A few free checks a day · papers already verified open instantly · results are public

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1038/nrm3699

Cites

2 of 2 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Claims the paper makes

The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.

Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.

A few free checks a day · papers already verified open instantly · results are public

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • In the absence of APOE, higher surface tension would make lowering the surface area to volume ratio of lipid droplets via Oswalt ripening more thermodynamically favorable.

    “In the absence of APOE, higher surface tension would make lowering the surface area to volume ratio of LDs via Oswalt ripening more thermodynamically favorable (Thiam et al., 2013).”

    From APOE traffics to astrocyte lipid droplets and modulates triglyceride saturation and droplet size (2024) · cites this paper as Thiam et al., 2013

    In “Mechanisms and Consequences of Emulsion Destabilization” (page unavailable), the paper says ripening minimizes interfacial surface energy and that greater surface tension increases the Laplace-pressure difference driving Ostwald ripening. It does not say that absence of APOE raises lipid-droplet surface tension; it also cautions that conventional Ostwald ripening is difficult to envisage between lipid droplets because their core lipids are nearly insoluble in water. (LLM, conf=0.86)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

The self-check needs the paper’s full text.

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 101

  1. [1]Walther TC Farese RV Jr. Lipid droplets and cellular lipid metabolism Annu Rev Biochem 2012 81 687 714 22524315 PMC3767414
  2. [2]Brasaemle DL Wolins NE Packaging of fat: an evolving model of lipid droplet assembly and expansion J Biol Chem 2012 287 2273 9 22090029 PMC3268387
  3. [3]Fujimoto T Parton RG Not just fat: the structure and function of the lipid droplet Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol 2011 3 PMC3039932 21421923
  4. [4]Thiele C Spandl J Cell biology of lipid droplets Curr Opin Cell Biol 2008 20 378 85 18606534
  5. [5]Krahmer N Farese RV Jr. Walther TC Balancing the fat: lipid droplets and human disease EMBO Mol Med 2013 5 905 15 23740690 PMC3721468
  6. [6]Bartz R Lipidomics reveals that adiposomes store ether lipids and mediate phospholipid traffic J Lipid Res 2007 48 837 47 17210984
  7. [7]Zanghellini J Wodlei F von Grunberg HH Phospholipid demixing and the birth of a lipid droplet J Theor Biol 2010 264 952 61 20184900
  8. [8]Khandelia H Duelund L Pakkanen KI Ipsen JH Triglyceride blisters in lipid bilayers: implications for lipid droplet biogenesis and the mobile lipid signal in cancer cell membranes PLoS One 2010 5 e12811 20877640 PMC2943900
  9. [10]Sjoblom J Encyclopedic handbook of emulsion technology 2010 CRC Press
  10. [11]Leal-Calderon F Schmitt V Bibette J Emulsion science: basic principles 2007 Springer
  11. [12]Tauchi-Sato K Ozeki S Houjou T Taguchi R Fujimoto T The surface of lipid droplets is a phospholipid monolayer with a unique Fatty Acid composition J Biol Chem 2002 277 44507 12 12221100
  12. [13]Fryd MM Mason TG Advanced nanoemulsions Annu Rev Phys Chem 2012 63 493 518 22475339
  13. [15]Langevin D Surfactant Rheology Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics 2013 46
  14. [16]Georgieva D Schmitt V Leal-Calderon F Langevin D On the possible role of surface elasticity in emulsion stability Langmuir 2009 25 5565 73 19309117
  15. [17]Fei W A role for phosphatidic acid in the formation of "supersized" lipid droplets PLoS Genet 2011 7 e1002201 21829381 PMC3145623
  16. [18]Krahmer N Phosphatidylcholine synthesis for lipid droplet expansion is mediated by localized activation of CTP:phosphocholine cytidylyltransferase Cell Metab 2011 14 504 15 21982710 PMC3735358
  17. [19]Kabalnov A Tarara T Arlauskas R Weers J Phospholipids as Emulsion Stabilizers J Colloid Interface Sci 1996 184 227 35 8954658
  18. [20]Thiam AR COPI buds 60-nm lipid droplets from reconstituted water-phospholipid-triacylglyceride interfaces, suggesting a tension clamp function Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2013 110 13244 9 23901109 PMC3746913
  19. [21]Chen Z Rand RP The influence of cholesterol on phospholipid membrane curvature and bending elasticity Biophys J 1997 73 267 76 9199791 PMC1180928
  20. [22]Chernomordik LV Kozlov MM Protein-lipid interplay in fusion and fission of biological membranes Annu Rev Biochem 2003 72 175 207 14527322
  21. [24]Bremond N Thiam AR Bibette J Decompressing emulsion droplets favors coalescence Phys Rev Lett 2008 100 024501 18232876
  22. [25]Thiam AR Bremond N Bibette J Breaking of an emulsion under an ac electric field Phys Rev Lett 2009 102 188304 19518918
  23. [26]Leikin S Kozlov MM Fuller NL Rand RP Measured effects of diacylglycerol on structural and elastic properties of phospholipid membranes Biophys J 1996 71 2623 32 8913600 PMC1233749
  24. [27]Karatekin E Cascades of transient pores in giant vesicles: line tension and transport Biophys J 2003 84 1734 49 12609875 PMC1302742
  25. [28]Biswas S Yin SR Blank PS Zimmerberg J Cholesterol promotes hemifusion and pore widening in membrane fusion induced by influenza hemagglutinin J Gen Physiol 2008 131 503 13 18443361 PMC2346574
  26. [29]Shemesh T Luini A Malhotra V Burger KN Kozlov MM Prefission constriction of Golgi tubular carriers driven by local lipid metabolism: a theoretical model Biophys J 2003 85 3813 27 14645071 PMC1303683
  27. [30]Fernandez-Ulibarri I Diacylglycerol is required for the formation of COPI vesicles in the Golgi-to-ER transport pathway Mol Biol Cell 2007 18 3250 63 17567948 PMC1951743
  28. [31]Popoff V Adolf F Brugger B Wieland F COPI budding within the Golgi stack Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol 2011 3 a005231 21844168 PMC3220356
  29. [34]Ariyaprakai S Dungan SR Influence of surfactant structure on the contribution of micelles to Ostwald ripening in oil-in-water emulsions J Colloid Interface Sci 2010 343 102 8 20042193
  30. [35]Baret JC Surfactants in droplet-based microfluidics Lab Chip 2012 12 422 33 22011791
  31. [36]Hanczyc MM Fujikawa SM Szostak JW Experimental models of primitive cellular compartments: encapsulation, growth, and division Science 2003 302 618 22 14576428 PMC4484575
  32. [37]Robenek H Robenek MJ Troyer D PAT family proteins pervade lipid droplet cores J Lipid Res 2005 46 1331 8 15741656
  33. [38]Paar M Remodeling of lipid droplets during lipolysis and growth in adipocytes J Biol Chem 2012 287 11164 73 22311986 PMC3322829
  34. [39]Ariotti N Postlipolytic insulin-dependent remodeling of micro lipid droplets in adipocytes Mol Biol Cell 2012 23 1826 37 22456503 PMC3350548
  35. [40]Gong J Fsp27 promotes lipid droplet growth by lipid exchange and transfer at lipid droplet contact sites J Cell Biol 2011 195 953 63 22144693 PMC3241734
  36. [41]Jambunathan S Yin J Khan W Tamori Y Puri V FSP27 promotes lipid droplet clustering and then fusion to regulate triglyceride accumulation PLoS One 2011 6 e28614 22194867 PMC3237475
  37. [42]Sun Z Perilipin1 promotes unilocular lipid droplet formation through the activation of Fsp27 in adipocytes Nat Commun 2013 4 1594 23481402 PMC3615468
  38. [43]Thiam AR Bremond N Bibette J From stability to permeability of adhesive emulsion bilayers Langmuir 2012 28 6291 8 22439743
  39. [44]Grahn TH FSP27 and PLIN1 interaction promotes the formation of large lipid droplets in human adipocytes Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2013 432 296 301 23399566 PMC3595328
  40. [46]Greenberg AS Perilipin, a major hormonally regulated adipocyte-specific phosphoprotein associated with the periphery of lipid storage droplets J Biol Chem 1991 266 11341 6 2040638
  41. [47]Londos C Perilipin: unique proteins associated with intracellular neutral lipid droplets in adipocytes and steroidogenic cells Biochem Soc Trans 1995 23 611 5 8566427
  42. [48]Cermelli S Guo Y Gross SP Welte MA The lipid-droplet proteome reveals that droplets are a protein-storage depot Curr Biol 2006 16 1783 95 16979555
  43. [49]Li Z Lipid droplets control the maternal histone supply of Drosophila embryos Curr Biol 2012 22 2104 13 23084995 PMC3513403
  44. [50]Krahmer N Protein correlation profiles identify lipid droplet proteins with high confidence Mol Cell Proteomics 2013 12 1115 26 23319140 PMC3650325
  45. [51]Brasaemle DL Perilipin A increases triacylglycerol storage by decreasing the rate of triacylglycerol hydrolysis J Biol Chem 2000 275 38486 93 10948207
  46. [52]Hinson ER Cresswell P The antiviral protein, viperin, localizes to lipid droplets via its N-terminal amphipathic alpha-helix Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2009 106 20452 7 19920176 PMC2778571
  47. [53]Taneva S Dennis MK Ding Z Smith JL Cornell RB Contribution of each membrane binding domain of the CTP:phosphocholine cytidylyltransferase-alpha dimer to its activation, membrane binding, and membrane cross-bridging J Biol Chem 2008 283 28137 48 18694933 PMC2661385
  48. [54]Ding Z A 22-mer segment in the structurally pliable regulatory domain of metazoan CTP: phosphocholine cytidylyltransferase facilitates both silencing and activating functions J Biol Chem 2012 287 38980 91 22988242 PMC3493939
  49. [55]Mitsche MA Small DM C-terminus of apolipoprotein A-I removes phospholipids from a triolein/phospholipids/water interface, but the N-terminus does not: a possible mechanism for nascent HDL assembly Biophys J 2011 101 353 61 21767487 PMC3136775
  50. [56]Meyers NL Wang L Small DM Apolipoprotein C-I binds more strongly to phospholipid/triolein/water than triolein/water interfaces: a possible model for inhibiting cholesterol ester transfer protein activity and triacylglycerol-rich lipoprotein uptake Biochemistry 2012 51 1238 48 22264166 PMC3313556
  51. [57]Abell BM Role of the proline knot motif in oleosin endoplasmic reticulum topology and oil body targeting Plant Cell 1997 9 1481 93 9286116 PMC157013
  52. [58]Napier JA Stobart AK Shewry PR The structure and biogenesis of plant oil bodies: the role of the ER membrane and the oleosin class of proteins Plant Mol Biol 1996 31 945 56 8843938
  53. [59]Pol A Cholesterol and fatty acids regulate dynamic caveolin trafficking through the Golgi complex and between the cell surface and lipid bodies Mol Biol Cell 2005 16 2091 105 15689493 PMC1073686
  54. [60]Le Lay S Cholesterol-induced caveolin targeting to lipid droplets in adipocytes: a role for caveolar endocytosis Traffic 2006 7 549 61 16643278
  55. [61]Wilfling F Triacylglycerol synthesis enzymes mediate lipid droplet growth by relocalizing from the ER to lipid droplets Dev Cell 2013 24 384 99 23415954 PMC3727400
  56. [62]Jacquier N Lipid droplets are functionally connected to the endoplasmic reticulum in Saccharomyces cerevisiae J Cell Sci 2011 124 2424 37 21693588
  57. [63]Waltermann M Mechanism of lipid-body formation in prokaryotes: how bacteria fatten up Mol Microbiol 2005 55 750 63 15661001
  58. [64]De Gennes P-G Brochard-Wyart F Quéré D Capillarity and wetting phenomena: drops, bubbles, pearls, waves 2004 Springer
  59. [65]Shum HC Lee D Yoon I Kodger T Weitz DA Double emulsion templated monodisperse phospholipid vesicles Langmuir 2008 24 7651 3 18613709
  60. [66]Hayward RC Utada AS Dan N Weitz DA Dewetting instability during the formation of polymersomes from block-copolymer-stabilized double emulsions Langmuir 2006 22 4457 61 16649747
  61. [67]Li Y Kusumaatmaja H Lipowsky R Dimova R Wetting-induced budding of vesicles in contact with several aqueous phases J Phys Chem B 2012 116 1819 23 22242924 PMC3280617
  62. [68]Liu Y Lipowsky R Dimova R Concentration dependence of the interfacial tension for aqueous two-phase polymer solutions of dextran and polyethylene glycol Langmuir 2012 28 3831 9 22292882
  63. [69]Thiam AR Bremond N Bibette J Adhesive emulsion bilayers under an electric field: from unzipping to fusion Phys Rev Lett 2011 107 068301 21902373
  64. [72]Safinya CR Sirota EB Roux D Smith GS Universality in interacting membranes: The effect of cosurfactants on the interfacial rigidity Phys Rev Lett 1989 62 1134 1137 10039585
  65. [74]Gursoy RN Benita S Self-emulsifying drug delivery systems (SEDDS) for improved oral delivery of lipophilic drugs Biomed Pharmacother 2004 58 173 82 15082340
  66. [75]Pouton CW Lipid formulations for oral administration of drugs: non-emulsifying, self-emulsifying and 'self-microemulsifying' drug delivery systems Eur J Pharm Sci 2000 11 Suppl 2 S931 8 11033431
  67. [77]Sadurni N Solans C Azemar N Garcia-Celma MJ Studies on the formation of O/W nano-emulsions, by low-energy emulsification methods, suitable for pharmaceutical applications Eur J Pharm Sci 2005 26 438 45 16153811
  68. [78]De Gennes PG Taupin C Microemulsions and the flexibility of oil/water interfaces The Journal of Physical Chemistry 1982 86 2294 2304
  69. [80]Yamada A Spontaneous transfer of phospholipid-coated oil-in-oil and water-in-oil micro-droplets through an oil/water interface Langmuir 2006 22 9824 8 17106968
  70. [81]Stachowiak JC Membrane bending by protein-protein crowding Nat Cell Biol 2012 14 944 9 22902598
  71. [82]Zimmerberg J Kozlov MM How proteins produce cellular membrane curvature Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology 2005 7 9 19 16365634
  72. [83]Wolins NE Brasaemle DL Bickel PE A proposed model of fat packaging by exchangeable lipid droplet proteins FEBS Lett 2006 580 5484 91 16962104
  73. [84]Cartwright BR Goodman JM Seipin: from human disease to molecular mechanism J Lipid Res 2012 53 1042 55 22474068 PMC3351812
  74. [85]Fei W Du X Yang H Seipin, adipogenesis and lipid droplets Trends Endocrinol Metab 2011 22 204 10 21497513
  75. [86]Hsieh K Perilipin family members preferentially sequester to either triacylglycerol-specific or cholesteryl-ester-specific intracellular lipid storage droplets J Cell Sci 2012 125 4067 76 22685330 PMC3482316
  76. [87]Poppelreuther M The N-terminal region of acyl-CoA synthetase 3 is essential for both the localization on lipid droplets and the function in fatty acid uptake J Lipid Res 2012 53 888 900 22357706 PMC3329388
  77. [88]Brasaemle DL Dolios G Shapiro L Wang R Proteomic analysis of proteins associated with lipid droplets of basal and lipolytically stimulated 3T3-L1 adipocytes J Biol Chem 2004 279 46835 42 15337753
  78. [89]Fujimoto Y Involvement of ACSL in local synthesis of neutral lipids in cytoplasmic lipid droplets in human hepatocyte HuH7 J Lipid Res 2007 48 1280 92 17379924
  79. [90]Young SG Zechner R Biochemistry and pathophysiology of intravascular and intracellular lipolysis Genes Dev 2013 27 459 84 23475957 PMC3605461
  80. [91]Eichmann TO Studies on the substrate and stereo/regioselectivity of adipose triglyceride lipase, hormone-sensitive lipase, and diacylglycerol-O-acyltransferases J Biol Chem 2012 287 41446 57 23066022 PMC3510842
  81. [92]Ouimet M Marcel YL Regulation of lipid droplet cholesterol efflux from macrophage foam cells Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2012 32 575 81 22207731
  82. [93]Ghosh S Zhao B Bie J Song J Macrophage cholesteryl ester mobilization and atherosclerosis Vascul Pharmacol 2010 52 1 10 19878739 PMC2823947
  83. [94]Holm C Osterlund T Laurell H Contreras JA Molecular mechanisms regulating hormone-sensitive lipase and lipolysis Annu Rev Nutr 2000 20 365 93 10940339
  84. [95]Soni KG Coatomer-dependent protein delivery to lipid droplets J Cell Sci 2009 122 1834 41 19461073 PMC2684835
  85. [96]Zechner R Kienesberger PC Haemmerle G Zimmermann R Lass A Adipose triglyceride lipase and the lipolytic catabolism of cellular fat stores J Lipid Res 2009 50 3 21 18952573
  86. [97]Zimmermann R Lass A Haemmerle G Zechner R Fate of fat: the role of adipose triglyceride lipase in lipolysis Biochim Biophys Acta 2009 1791 494 500 19010445
  87. [98]Lass A Zimmermann R Oberer M Zechner R Lipolysis - a highly regulated multi-enzyme complex mediates the catabolism of cellular fat stores Prog Lipid Res 2011 50 14 27 21087632 PMC3031774
  88. [99]Wang H Perilipin 5, a lipid droplet-associated protein, provides physical and metabolic linkage to mitochondria J Lipid Res 2011 52 2159 68 21885430 PMC3220284
  89. [100]Romeo S Genetic variation in PNPLA3 confers susceptibility to nonalcoholic fatty liver disease Nat Genet 2008 40 1461 5 18820647 PMC2597056
  90. [101]Murphy S Martin S Parton RG Quantitative analysis of lipid droplet fusion: inefficient steady state fusion but rapid stimulation by chemical fusogens PLoS One 2010 5 e15030 21203462 PMC3009727
  91. [102]Nakamura N Banno Y Tamiya-Koizumi K Arf1-dependent PLD1 is localized to oleic acid-induced lipid droplets in NIH3T3 cells Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2005 335 117 23 16054594
  92. [103]Gubern A Lipid droplet biogenesis induced by stress involves triacylglycerol synthesis that depends on group VIA phospholipase A2 J Biol Chem 2009 284 5697 708 19117952
  93. [104]Long AP Lipid droplet de novo formation and fission are linked to the cell cycle in fission yeast Traffic 2012 13 705 14 22300234
  94. [105]Olzmann JA Richter CM Kopito RR Spatial regulation of UBXD8 and p97/VCP controls ATGL-mediated lipid droplet turnover Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2013 110 1345 50 23297223 PMC3557085
  95. [106]Spandl J Lohmann D Kuerschner L Moessinger C Thiele C Ancient ubiquitous protein 1 (AUP1) localizes to lipid droplets and binds the E2 ubiquitin conjugase G2 (Ube2g2) via its G2 binding region J Biol Chem 2011 286 5599 606 21127063 PMC3037673
  96. [107]Klemm EJ Spooner E Ploegh HL Dual role of ancient ubiquitous protein 1 (AUP1) in lipid droplet accumulation and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) protein quality control J Biol Chem 2011 286 37602 14 21857022 PMC3199505
  97. [108]Singh R Autophagy regulates lipid metabolism Nature 2009 458 1131 5 19339967 PMC2676208
  98. [110]Kaushik S Autophagy in hypothalamic AgRP neurons regulates food intake and energy balance Cell Metab 2011 14 173 83 21803288 PMC3148494
  99. [111]Hartman IZ Sterol-induced dislocation of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase from endoplasmic reticulum membranes into the cytosol through a subcellular compartment resembling lipid droplets J Biol Chem 2010 285 19288 98 20406816 PMC2885207
  100. [112]Herker E Efficient hepatitis C virus particle formation requires diacylglycerol acyltransferase-1 Nat Med 2010 16 1295 8 20935628 PMC3431199
  101. [113]Cornish K Wood DF Windle JJ Rubber particles from four different species, examined by transmission electron microscopy and electron-paramagnetic-resonance spin labeling, are found to consist of a homogeneous rubber core enclosed by a contiguous, monolayer biomembrane Planta 1999 210 85 96 10592036

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Authors
Thiam, A. R., Farese Jr, R. V., & Walther, T. C.
Affiliations
  • Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (FR)
  • Yale University (US)
Corresponding author
Walther, Tobias C.
ORCID
Venue
Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology
Publisher
Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published
2013-11-13
Volume
14
Issue
12
Pages
775-786
ISSN
  • 1471-0072 (ISSN-L)
  • 1471-0080
DOI
10.1038/nrm3699
PMC
PMC4526153
OpenAlex
W1985156966
Cited by
986
References
2
Citations by year
2026: 61 · 2025: 68 · 2024: 104 · 2023: 78 · 2022: 77 · 2021: 101 · 2020: 77 · 2019: 68 · 2018: 91 · 2017: 87 · 2016: 73 · 2015: 59 · 2014: 39 · 2013: 2
FWCI
5.26
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
Locations
  • Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
Funders
  • National Institute of General Medical Sciences (R01GM099844, R01GM097194)
  • National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (P30DK026743)
Topics
  • Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Biochemistry › Lipid metabolism and biosynthesis
  • Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Cancer Research › Cancer, Lipids, and Metabolism
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Cardiology and Cardiovascular Medicine › Lipid metabolism and disorders
Keywords
lipid droplets, emulsions, oil-in-water emulsions, lipid droplet formation, lipid droplet homeostasis, membrane lipid synthesis
MeSH terms
Animals, Humans, Membrane Fluidity, Membrane Lipids, Protein Binding, Surface Tension, Organelles, Lipid Metabolism, Hydrophobic and Hydrophilic Interactions

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review