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Innate immune memory in the brain shapes neurological disease hallmarks
Open accessAbstract
Innate immune memory is a vital mechanism of myeloid cell plasticity that occurs in response to environmental stimuli and alters subsequent immune responses. Two types of immunological imprinting can be distinguished-training and tolerance. These are epigenetically mediated and enhance or suppress subsequent inflammation, respectively. Whether immune memory occurs in tissue-resident macrophages in vivo and how it may affect pathology remains largely unknown. Here we demonstrate that peripherally applied inflammatory stimuli induce acute immune training and tolerance in the brain and lead to differential epigenetic reprogramming of brain-resident macrophages (microglia) that persists for at least six months. Strikingly, in a mouse model of Alzheimer's pathology, immune training exacerbates cerebral β-amyloidosis and immune tolerance alleviates it; similarly, peripheral immune stimulation modifies pathological features after stroke. Our results identify immune memory in the brain as an important modifier of neuropathology.
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“Next we tested the effect of Aβ42 and LPS on oxidative stress response in microglial cells as amyloid and inflammation trigger and exacerbate pathological changes in AD brain (Wendeln et al., 2018).”
From Alzheimer's-associated PU.1 expression levels regulate microglial inflammatory response (2021) · cites this paper as Wendeln et al., 2018
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
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“peripheral insults that cause a systemic inflammatory response might affect ongoing inflammation in the CNS mainly by microglial activation, production of inflammatory molecules, as well as recruitment of peripheral immune cells into the brain, thus shaping a cerebral inflammatory milieu that may seriously affect neuronal function (50, 52, 53).”
From The Role of Short-Chain Fatty Acids From Gut Microbiota in Gut-Brain Communication (2020) · cites this paper as [53]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
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“However, nonspecific microglia activation induced by lipopolysaccharide does not have the same amyloid-promoting effect as myelin dysfunction, as increases, decreases or no changes in amyloid burden have been reported48–51.”
From Myelin dysfunction drives amyloid-β deposition in models of Alzheimer’s disease (2023) · cites this paper as [49]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
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“A Hif1a epigenetic and transcriptomic signature was recently identified in microglia following immune training by peripheral LPS administration in APP/PS1 mice65.”
From Transcriptional signature in microglia associated with Aβ plaque phagocytosis (2021) · cites this paper as [65]
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“Animal and in-vitro studies demonstrate that inflammatory stimuli may initiate long-term priming of the microglia, peripheral CD4+ and CD8+ T cells to a proinflammatory state, (352-354) potentially increasing amyloid plaque deposition.(355)”
From Dementia prevention, intervention, and care: 2024 report of the Lancet standing Commission (2024) · cites this paper as [355]
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“Our data suggest that PU.1 may contribute to this mechanism of innate immune memory in the brain (Wendeln et al., 2018).”
From Alzheimer's-associated PU.1 expression levels regulate microglial inflammatory response (2021) · cites this paper as Wendeln et al., 2018
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In the citing paper
“although it is important to note that the efficiency of individual phagocytic processes can be dependent on experimental conditions65–67.”
From Transcriptional signature in microglia associated with Aβ plaque phagocytosis (2021) · cites this paper as [65]
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“We found little overlap between the Hif1a module reported in65 and the Hif1a regulon identified here (Supplementary Fig. 13d)”
From Transcriptional signature in microglia associated with Aβ plaque phagocytosis (2021) · cites this paper as [65]
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In the citing paper
“In healthy mice, peripherally applied LPS can differentially reprogram the epigenome of microglia by inducing either acute immune training or tolerance pending upon the number of injections [102].”
From What would it take to prove that a chronic infection is a causal agent in Alzheimer’s disease? (2025) · cites this paper as [102]
In the citing paper
“and systemic endotoxin precipitates brain pathology in mice expressing prions [74], APP variants [33] or TAU variants [69] or mice with α-synuclein injected in the brain [46].”
From The endotoxin hypothesis of neurodegeneration (2019) · cites this paper as [33]
In the citing paper
“Microglial markers such as purinergic receptor P2Y G-protein coupled 12 (P2ryl2), transmembrane protein 119 (Tmem119), and Fc receptor-like S, scavenger receptor (Fcrls), are used to define microglia homeostatic state.”
From Transcriptional and Epigenetic Regulation of Microglia in Health and Disease (2019) · cites this paper as [11]
In the citing paper
“Whereas, inflammatory marker Clec7a is used to define microglia in neurodegenerative state [11].”
From Transcriptional and Epigenetic Regulation of Microglia in Health and Disease (2019) · cites this paper as [11]
In the citing paper
“Immune memory in microglia and macrophages are shaped by epigenetically mediated alterations in the enhancer repertoire of targeted genes [11, 32].”
From Transcriptional and Epigenetic Regulation of Microglia in Health and Disease (2019) · cites this paper as [11]
In the citing paper
“In addition, APP mice with four-time LPS treatment showed increased H3K4me1 levels in putative enhancers related to phagocytic function [11].”
From Transcriptional and Epigenetic Regulation of Microglia in Health and Disease (2019) · cites this paper as [11]
In the citing paper
“Cerebral beta-amyloidosis activates HIF-1a and mTOR pathways, which leads to transcriptional and functional alterations associated with increased inflammatory and immune response genes in MGnD [11].”
From Transcriptional and Epigenetic Regulation of Microglia in Health and Disease (2019) · cites this paper as [11]
In the citing paper
“Peripheral immune stimulation and cerebral beta-amyloidosis can lead to epigenetic modification in microglia.”
From Transcriptional and Epigenetic Regulation of Microglia in Health and Disease (2019) · cites this paper as [11]
In the citing paper
“These data suggest the differential effect of immune training versus tolerance due to multiple peripheral immune stimulation, which is reflected in the epigenetic landscape of MGnD in AD mouse models.”
From Transcriptional and Epigenetic Regulation of Microglia in Health and Disease (2019) · cites this paper as [11]
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Additional file 11 of Epigenetic regulation of innate immune memory in microglia
Zhang, X., Kracht, L., Lerário, A. M., Dubbelaar, M. L., Brouwer, N., Wesseling, E. M., Boddeke, E., Eggen, B. J. L., & Kooistra, S. M. (2022) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.19768066
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Additional file 6 of Epigenetic regulation of innate immune memory in microglia
Zhang, X., Kracht, L., Lerário, A. M., Dubbelaar, M. L., Brouwer, N., Wesseling, E. M., Boddeke, E., Eggen, B. J. L., & Kooistra, S. M. (2022) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.19768093
Additional file 13 of Epigenetic regulation of innate immune memory in microglia
Zhang, X., Kracht, L., Lerário, A. M., Dubbelaar, M. L., Brouwer, N., Wesseling, E. M., Boddeke, E., Eggen, B. J. L., & Kooistra, S. M. (2022) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.19768072
Additional file 14 of Epigenetic regulation of innate immune memory in microglia
Zhang, X., Kracht, L., Lerário, A. M., Dubbelaar, M. L., Brouwer, N., Wesseling, E. M., Boddeke, E., Eggen, B. J. L., & Kooistra, S. M. (2022) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.19768075
Additional file 8 of Epigenetic regulation of innate immune memory in microglia
Zhang, X., Kracht, L., Lerário, A. M., Dubbelaar, M. L., Brouwer, N., Wesseling, E. M., Boddeke, E., Eggen, B. J. L., & Kooistra, S. M. (2022) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.19768099
Additional file 7 of Systemic administration of β-glucan induces immune training in microglia
Heng, Y., Zhang, X., Borggrewe, M., van Weering, H. R. J., Brummer, M. L., Nijboer, T. W., Joosten, L. A. B., Netea, M. G., Boddeke, E., Laman, J. D., et al. (2021) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.14091486
Additional file 10 of Epigenetic regulation of innate immune memory in microglia
Zhang, X., Kracht, L., Lerário, A. M., Dubbelaar, M. L., Brouwer, N., Wesseling, E. M., Boddeke, E., Eggen, B. J. L., & Kooistra, S. M. (2022) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.19768063
Additional file 4 of Systemic administration of β-glucan induces immune training in microglia
Heng, Y., Zhang, X., Borggrewe, M., van Weering, H. R. J., Brummer, M. L., Nijboer, T. W., Joosten, L. A. B., Netea, M. G., Boddeke, E., Laman, J. D., et al. (2021) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.14091477
Additional file 9 of Epigenetic regulation of innate immune memory in microglia
Zhang, X., Kracht, L., Lerário, A. M., Dubbelaar, M. L., Brouwer, N., Wesseling, E. M., Boddeke, E., Eggen, B. J. L., & Kooistra, S. M. (2022) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.19768102
Additional file 7 of Epigenetic regulation of innate immune memory in microglia
Zhang, X., Kracht, L., Lerário, A. M., Dubbelaar, M. L., Brouwer, N., Wesseling, E. M., Boddeke, E., Eggen, B. J. L., & Kooistra, S. M. (2022) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.19768096
Additional file 5 of Epigenetic regulation of innate immune memory in microglia
Zhang, X., Kracht, L., Lerário, A. M., Dubbelaar, M. L., Brouwer, N., Wesseling, E. M., Boddeke, E., Eggen, B. J. L., & Kooistra, S. M. (2022) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.19768090
Additional file 12 of Epigenetic regulation of innate immune memory in microglia
Zhang, X., Kracht, L., Lerário, A. M., Dubbelaar, M. L., Brouwer, N., Wesseling, E. M., Boddeke, E., Eggen, B. J. L., & Kooistra, S. M. (2022) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.19768069
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Additional file 1 of Systemic administration of β-glucan induces immune training in microglia
Heng, Y., Zhang, X., Borggrewe, M., van Weering, H. R. J., Brummer, M. L., Nijboer, T. W., Joosten, L. A. B., Netea, M. G., Boddeke, E., Laman, J. D., et al. (2021) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.14091468
Sudwarts, A., Ramesha, S., Gao, T., Ponnusamy, M., Wang, S., Hansen, M. T., Kozlova, A., Bitarafan, S., Kumar, P., Beaulieu‐Abdelahad, D., et al. (2022) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.19728376
Additional file 5 of Systemic administration of β-glucan induces immune training in microglia
Heng, Y., Zhang, X., Borggrewe, M., van Weering, H. R. J., Brummer, M. L., Nijboer, T. W., Joosten, L. A. B., Netea, M. G., Boddeke, E., Laman, J. D., et al. (2021) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.14091480
Sudwarts, A., Ramesha, S., Gao, T., Ponnusamy, M., Wang, S., Hansen, M. T., Kozlova, A., Bitarafan, S., Kumar, P., Beaulieu‐Abdelahad, D., et al. (2022) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.19728382
Sudwarts, A., Ramesha, S., Gao, T., Ponnusamy, M., Wang, S., Hansen, M. T., Kozlova, A., Bitarafan, S., Kumar, P., Beaulieu‐Abdelahad, D., et al. (2022) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.19728391
Sudwarts, A., Ramesha, S., Gao, T., Ponnusamy, M., Wang, S., Hansen, M. T., Kozlova, A., Bitarafan, S., Kumar, P., Beaulieu‐Abdelahad, D., et al. (2022) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.19728373
Morroni, J., Benedetti, A., Esposito, L., Bardi, M. D., Borsellino, G., Riera, C. S., Giordani, L., Bouché, M., & Lozanoska‐Ochser, B. (2023) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.24123848
Kurki, S., Ala‐Kurikka, T., Lipponen, A., Pospelov, A. S., Rõlova, T., Koıstınaho, J., Voipio, J., & Kaila, K. (2024) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.26607115
Morroni, J., Benedetti, A., Esposito, L., Bardi, M. D., Borsellino, G., Riera, C. S., Giordani, L., Bouché, M., & Lozanoska‐Ochser, B. (2023) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.24123842
Additional file 6 of Systemic administration of β-glucan induces immune training in microglia
Heng, Y., Zhang, X., Borggrewe, M., van Weering, H. R. J., Brummer, M. L., Nijboer, T. W., Joosten, L. A. B., Netea, M. G., Boddeke, E., Laman, J. D., et al. (2021) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.14091483
Piepke, M., Clausen, B. H., Ludewig, P., Vienhues, J. H., Bedke, T., Javidi, E., Rissiek, B., Jank, L., Brockmann, L., Sandrock, I., et al. (2021) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.17004434
Self-citationMorroni, J., Benedetti, A., Esposito, L., Bardi, M. D., Borsellino, G., Riera, C. S., Giordani, L., Bouché, M., & Lozanoska‐Ochser, B. (2023) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.24123851
Morroni, J., Benedetti, A., Esposito, L., Bardi, M. D., Borsellino, G., Riera, C. S., Giordani, L., Bouché, M., & Lozanoska‐Ochser, B. (2023) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.24123854
Sudwarts, A., Ramesha, S., Gao, T., Ponnusamy, M., Wang, S., Hansen, M. T., Kozlova, A., Bitarafan, S., Kumar, P., Beaulieu‐Abdelahad, D., et al. (2022) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.19728388
Additional file 3 of Systemic administration of β-glucan induces immune training in microglia
Heng, Y., Zhang, X., Borggrewe, M., van Weering, H. R. J., Brummer, M. L., Nijboer, T. W., Joosten, L. A. B., Netea, M. G., Boddeke, E., Laman, J. D., et al. (2021) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.14091474
Kurki, S., Ala‐Kurikka, T., Lipponen, A., Pospelov, A. S., Rõlova, T., Koıstınaho, J., Voipio, J., & Kaila, K. (2024) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.26607112
Additional file 8 of Systemic administration of β-glucan induces immune training in microglia
Heng, Y., Zhang, X., Borggrewe, M., van Weering, H. R. J., Brummer, M. L., Nijboer, T. W., Joosten, L. A. B., Netea, M. G., Boddeke, E., Laman, J. D., et al. (2021) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.14091489
He, Y., Zhao, J., Ma, Y., Yan, X., Duan, Y., Zhang, X., Dong, H., Fang, R., Zhang, Y., Li, Q., et al. (2024) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.25996821
Additional file 1 of Epigenetic regulation of innate immune memory in microglia
Zhang, X., Kracht, L., Lerário, A. M., Dubbelaar, M. L., Brouwer, N., Wesseling, E. M., Boddeke, E., Eggen, B. J. L., & Kooistra, S. M. (2022) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.19768078
Morroni, J., Benedetti, A., Esposito, L., Bardi, M. D., Borsellino, G., Riera, C. S., Giordani, L., Bouché, M., & Lozanoska‐Ochser, B. (2023) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.24123857
Additional file 2 of Systemic administration of β-glucan induces immune training in microglia
Heng, Y., Zhang, X., Borggrewe, M., van Weering, H. R. J., Brummer, M. L., Nijboer, T. W., Joosten, L. A. B., Netea, M. G., Boddeke, E., Laman, J. D., et al. (2021) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.14091471
Dong, H., Zhang, X., Duan, Y., He, Y., Zhao, J., Wang, Z., Wang, J., Li, Q., Fan, G., Liu, Z., et al. (2024) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.26699810
Zatcepin, A., Gnörich, J. S., Rauchmann, B.-S., Bartos, L. M., Wagner, S., Franzmeier, N., Malpetti, M., Xiang, X., Shi, Y., Parhizkar, S., et al. (2024) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.26952306
Self-citationSudwarts, A., Ramesha, S., Gao, T., Ponnusamy, M., Wang, S., Hansen, M. T., Kozlova, A., Bitarafan, S., Kumar, P., Beaulieu‐Abdelahad, D., et al. (2022) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.19728385
Lang, G.-P., Ndongson‐Dongmo, B., Lajqi, T., Brodhun, M., Han, Y., Wetzker, R., Frasch, M. G., & Bauer, R. (2020) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.13065620
Additional file 2 of Epigenetic regulation of innate immune memory in microglia
Zhang, X., Kracht, L., Lerário, A. M., Dubbelaar, M. L., Brouwer, N., Wesseling, E. M., Boddeke, E., Eggen, B. J. L., & Kooistra, S. M. (2022) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.19768081
Ohm, M., Hosseini, S., Lonnemann, N., He, W., More, T., Goldmann, O., Medina, E., Hiller, K., & Körte, M. (2024) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.26798844
Bøhn, S. K., Myhrstad, M. C. W., Thoresen, M., Erlund, I., Vasstrand, A. K., Marciuch, A., Carlsen, M. H., Bastani, N. E., Engedal, K., Flekkøy, K., et al. (2021) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.17058683
Additional file 3 of Epigenetic regulation of innate immune memory in microglia
Zhang, X., Kracht, L., Lerário, A. M., Dubbelaar, M. L., Brouwer, N., Wesseling, E. M., Boddeke, E., Eggen, B. J. L., & Kooistra, S. M. (2022) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.19768084
Piccoli, T., Castro, F., Bella, V. L., Meraviglia, S., Simone, M. D., Salemi, G., Dieli, F., & Spataro, R. (2024) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.26596016
Morroni, J., Benedetti, A., Esposito, L., Bardi, M. D., Borsellino, G., Riera, C. S., Giordani, L., Bouché, M., & Lozanoska‐Ochser, B. (2023) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.24123839
Bøhn, S. K., Myhrstad, M. C. W., Thoresen, M., Erlund, I., Vasstrand, A. K., Marciuch, A., Carlsen, M. H., Bastani, N. E., Engedal, K., Flekkøy, K., et al. (2021) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.17058680
Additional file 4 of Epigenetic regulation of innate immune memory in microglia
Zhang, X., Kracht, L., Lerário, A. M., Dubbelaar, M. L., Brouwer, N., Wesseling, E. M., Boddeke, E., Eggen, B. J. L., & Kooistra, S. M. (2022) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.19768087
Sudwarts, A., Ramesha, S., Gao, T., Ponnusamy, M., Wang, S., Hansen, M. T., Kozlova, A., Bitarafan, S., Kumar, P., Beaulieu‐Abdelahad, D., et al. (2022) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.19728379
Sudwarts, A., Ramesha, S., Gao, T., Ponnusamy, M., Wang, S., Hansen, M. T., Kozlova, A., Bitarafan, S., Kumar, P., Beaulieu‐Abdelahad, D., et al. (2022) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.19728370
Singh, G., Segura, B. J., Georgieff, M. K., & Gisslen, T. A. (2021) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.14205459
Morroni, J., Benedetti, A., Esposito, L., Bardi, M. D., Borsellino, G., Riera, C. S., Giordani, L., Bouché, M., & Lozanoska‐Ochser, B. (2023) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.24123845
Sudwarts, A., Ramesha, S., Gao, T., Ponnusamy, M., Wang, S., Hansen, M. T., Kozlova, A., Bitarafan, S., Kumar, P., Beaulieu‐Abdelahad, D., et al. (2022) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.19728367
Zhou, C., Zhang, J.-B., Yang, Y.-J., Chen, W., & Liu, Z.-Z. (2026) · Veterinary Research · doi:10.1186/s13567-025-01704-8
de Lavergne, M., Mazzola, L., Podsypanina, K., Estrella, C., Verwaerde, P., Evnouchidou, I., Darrasse-Jèze, G., Potier, M., Vyas, S., & Manoury, B. (2026) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.64898/2026.01.16.699962
“Multiple injections of LPS, a TLR4 ligand, in the periphery were also shown to lead to long--‐term microglial ‘memory’ that modifies Aβ pathology through epigenetic regulation of microglial inflammatory and clearance function (Wendeln et al. 2018).”
Infection trajectories and dementia risk in type 2 diabetes
Xie, P., Lu, Z., Xue, S., Miao, M., Fu, S., Wang, J., Yang, Y., Chen, W., Wu, S., Zhang, J., et al. (2026) · Diabetology & Metabolic Syndrome · doi:10.1186/s13098-026-02091-6
“Studies have demonstrated that infections, even those occurring outside the central nervous system (CNS), can induce prolonged neuroinflammatory responses that accelerate neurodegeneration and increase dementia risk [58, 59].”
Metadata
- Authors
- Wendeln, A.-C., Degenhardt, K., Kaurani, L., Gertig, M., Ulas, T., Jain, G., Wagner, J., Häsler, L. M., Wild, K., Skodras, A., Blank, T., Staszewski, O., Datta, M., Centeno, T. P., Capece, V., Islam, M. R., Kerimoglu, C., Staufenbiel, M., Schultze, J. L., Beyer, M., Prinz, M., Jucker, M., Fischer, A., & Neher, J. J.
- Affiliations
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DE)
- University of Bonn (DE)
- University of Freiburg (DE)
- Corresponding author
- Neher, Jonas J.
- ORCID
- Venue
- Nature
- Published
- 2018-04
- Volume
- 556
- Issue
- 7701
- Pages
- 332-338
- ISSN
- 0028-0836 (ISSN-L)
- 1476-4687
- PMC
- PMC6038912
- OpenAlex
- W2796983933
- Cited by
- 956
- References
- 51
- Citations by year
- 2026: 117 · 2025: 102 · 2024: 120 · 2023: 106 · 2022: 121 · 2021: 135 · 2020: 104 · 2019: 90 · 2018: 60
- FWCI
- 43.97
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- europepmc.org
- Licence
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- Locations
- Nature (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- DZNE Pub (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Neurology › Neuroinflammation and Neurodegeneration Mechanisms
- Life Sciences › Immunology and Microbiology › Immunology › Immune responses and vaccinations
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Inflammasome and immune disorders
- Keywords
- trained immunity, immunological imprinting, immune tolerance, microglia, epigenetic reprogramming, neuroinflammation, Alzheimer's disease, beta-amyloidosis, stroke, neuropathology
- MeSH terms
- Alzheimer Disease, Amyloidosis, Animals, Brain, Disease Models, Animal, Female, Gene Expression Regulation, Humans, Immune Tolerance, Immunity, Innate, Immunologic Memory, Inflammation, Male, Nervous System Diseases, Microglia, Stroke, Epigenesis, Genetic, Mice
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