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Cited by 1Hydrology and Watershed Management StudiesHydrological Forecasting Using AIEnvironmental Monitoring and Data Management

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 58 of the 58 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.

Spatially-informed interpolation for reconstructing lake area time series using semantic neighborhood correlation

Open access
Liu, Chen·2025·Scientific Reports
DOI 10.1038/s41598-025-09410-3PMC PMC12241530

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Abstract

Long-term, high-resolution records of lake surface area are essential for characterizing the spatiotemporal dynamics of inland water bodies. Although Synthetic Aperture Radar has substantially improved water extent detection under adverse conditions, optical remote sensing imagery remains the dominant data source owing to its higher spatial resolution. Nevertheless, optical data are frequently compromised by persistent cloud cover and sensor limitations, leading to substantial observational gaps. To effectively address this challenge, this study introduces a novel spatially-informed interpolation method termed Semantic Neighborhood Correlation-based Interpolation (SNCI), which leverages spatial correlations among hydrologically interconnected lakes to reconstruct missing lake area observations. By explicitly modeling the inherent hydrological and climatic coherence among neighboring lakes, SNCI provides robust, accurate, and scalable interpolations even in the presence of extensive temporal data losses. The method was evaluated on monthly lake area data from 54 lakes in the Wuhan region between 2000 and 2020, using the Global Surface Water dataset, and validated against high-resolution Dynamic World observations. Several representative lakes were analyzed in detail to assess SNCI’s robustness across diverse seasonal and interannual conditions. Compared with polynomial fitting, Random Forest, and Long Short-Term Memory, SNCI consistently achieves lower interpolation errors. In the case of East Lake, SNCI reduces mean absolute error by 50.1% and root mean square error by 28.3% relative to the best-performing baseline. Across all lakes, SNCI demonstrates superior accuracy and correlation, particularly under data-sparse conditions. These results underscore SNCI’s potential to enhance lake area reconstruction accuracy and support broader applications in hydrological modeling, environmental monitoring, and climate impact assessment.

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Figures

Fig. 1 Geographic location and hydrological structure of the study area. The region includes three Basins and features complex hydrological connectivity. Elevation data were derived from the SRTM digital elevation model34, while lake and river bodies were extracted from satellite observations. The red boundaries denote the spatial extent analyzed using the SNCI method.
Fig. 1 Geographic location and hydrological structure of the study area. The region includes three Basins and features complex hydrological connectivity. Elevation data were derived from the SRTM digital elevation model34, while lake and river bodies were extracted from satellite observations. The red boundaries denote the spatial extent analyzed using the SNCI method.CC BY · PubMed Central
Fig. 2 Geographic distribution, catchment boundaries, and surrounding land-use patterns of four selected lakes. (a) shows the locations of East Lake, South Lake, West Lake, and Five Lake, overlaid on a Sentinel-2 satellite image derived and visualized using Google Earth Engine (https://earthengine.google.com). Subfigures (b)–(f) present each individual lake along with its surrounding land cover types, derived from the SinoLC-1 land cover dataset42.
Fig. 2 Geographic distribution, catchment boundaries, and surrounding land-use patterns of four selected lakes. (a) shows the locations of East Lake, South Lake, West Lake, and Five Lake, overlaid on a Sentinel-2 satellite image derived and visualized using Google Earth Engine (https://earthengine.google.com). Subfigures (b)–(f) present each individual lake along with its surrounding land cover types, derived from the SinoLC-1 land cover dataset42.CC BY · PubMed Central
Fig. 3 Schematic workflow of the proposed SNCI-based lake area reconstruction framework. The diagram illustrates the three-stage process comprising lake area extraction and outlier removal, neighborhood correlation analysis, and SNCI-based interpolation.
Fig. 3 Schematic workflow of the proposed SNCI-based lake area reconstruction framework. The diagram illustrates the three-stage process comprising lake area extraction and outlier removal, neighborhood correlation analysis, and SNCI-based interpolation.CC BY · PubMed Central
Fig. 4 Schematic of the SNCI principle: missing values for a target lake are estimated using observations from temporally correlated neighboring lakes.
Fig. 4 Schematic of the SNCI principle: missing values for a target lake are estimated using observations from temporally correlated neighboring lakes.CC BY · PubMed Central
Fig. 5 Distribution of lake surface area data before and after outlier removal. The figure shows lake area distributions under three conditions: (1) raw data, (2) after initial screening using the GSW permanent water dataset, and (3) after further filtering via Boxplot analysis.
Fig. 5 Distribution of lake surface area data before and after outlier removal. The figure shows lake area distributions under three conditions: (1) raw data, (2) after initial screening using the GSW permanent water dataset, and (3) after further filtering via Boxplot analysis.CC BY · PubMed Central
Fig. 6 Summary of missing lake surface area records. (a) Time series completeness across all lakes, where blue bars indicate valid observations and white gaps denote missing values. (b) Histogram of missing months per lake, illustrating the spatial variability in data availability.
Fig. 6 Summary of missing lake surface area records. (a) Time series completeness across all lakes, where blue bars indicate valid observations and white gaps denote missing values. (b) Histogram of missing months per lake, illustrating the spatial variability in data availability.CC BY · PubMed Central
Fig. 7 Correlation heatmap of lake area dynamics in the Wuhan region. Warmer colors indicate stronger positive correlations in temporal area changes between lake pairs, while cooler tones highlight weak or negative relationships.
Fig. 7 Correlation heatmap of lake area dynamics in the Wuhan region. Warmer colors indicate stronger positive correlations in temporal area changes between lake pairs, while cooler tones highlight weak or negative relationships.CC BY · PubMed Central
Fig. 8 Highly correlated lake pairs centered on selected study lakes. The figure highlights neighboring lakes that exhibit strong temporal correlation in surface area change with several representative lakes, serving as potential candidates for SNCI-based interpolation.
Fig. 8 Highly correlated lake pairs centered on selected study lakes. The figure highlights neighboring lakes that exhibit strong temporal correlation in surface area change with several representative lakes, serving as potential candidates for SNCI-based interpolation.CC BY · PubMed Central
Fig. 9 Comparison of reconstructed monthly lake areas from 2017 to 2020 using three selected methods: RF, LSTM, and the proposed SNCI. These methods were chosen for visualization due to their superior numerical performance.
Fig. 9 Comparison of reconstructed monthly lake areas from 2017 to 2020 using three selected methods: RF, LSTM, and the proposed SNCI. These methods were chosen for visualization due to their superior numerical performance.CC BY · PubMed Central
Fig. 10 presents heatmap-based reconstructions of monthly lake area from 2000 to 2020 (left column), alongside the original, un-interpolated GSW-derived lake extents for the year 2018 (right column). The 2018 panels clearly reveal persistent data gaps—especially in winter months—caused by cloud cover and limited satellite observations, underscoring the need for robust interpolation techniques.
Fig. 10 presents heatmap-based reconstructions of monthly lake area from 2000 to 2020 (left column), alongside the original, un-interpolated GSW-derived lake extents for the year 2018 (right column). The 2018 panels clearly reveal persistent data gaps—especially in winter months—caused by cloud cover and limited satellite observations, underscoring the need for robust interpolation techniques.CC BY · PubMed Central

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Metadata

Authors
Liu, C.
Affiliations
Wuhan University (CN)
Corresponding author
Liu, Chen
ORCID
Liu, Chen
Venue
Scientific Reports
Publisher
Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published
2025-07-09
Volume
15
Issue
1
Pages
24787-24787
ISSN
2045-2322 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1038/s41598-025-09410-3
PMC
PMC12241530
OpenAlex
W4412177594
Cited by
1
References
58
Citations by year
2026: 1
FWCI
0.25
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Scientific Reports (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • Research Square (acceptedVersion, cc-by)
  • Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Topics
  • Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Water Science and Technology › Hydrology and Watershed Management Studies
  • Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Engineering › Hydrological Forecasting Using AI
  • Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Management, Monitoring, Policy and Law › Environmental Monitoring and Data Management
Keywords
missing data interpolation, surface water extent, Global Surface Water dataset, Dynamic World, East Lake

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