Psychotropic Effects of COX-2 Inhibitors - A Possible New Approach for the Treatment of Psychiatric Disorders
Abstract
Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2)--constitutively expressed in the CNS--is suggested to have an important functional role in the CNS. COX-2 interacts with neurotransmitters such as acetylcholine, serotonin, and glutamate, but is also involved in the regulation of immune system and in inflammation in the central nervous system (CNS) via effects of prostaglandins, in particular prostaglandin E (2). Recently, a role for the new generation of selective COX-2 inhibitors in the treatment of psychiatric disorders is discussed. Until now, COX-2 inhibitors have failed to show therapeutic effects in Alzheimer's disease, but studies from basic research point to a possible effect on cognition. A clinical effect of the COX-2 inhibitor celecoxib on cognition was observed in schizophrenic patients. The therapeutic effect of celecoxib add-on treatment to the atypical antipsychotic risperidone, however, is not restricted to cognition. A general effect on symptoms of schizophrenia was observed, which supports the view that an immunological/inflammatory process is involved in the pathogenesis of schizophrenia. In depression, however, signs of inflammation have been described since many years. Although results of clinical studies with COX-2 inhibitors in depression are still lacking, clinical improvement of a depressive syndrome has been observed in patients, who have been treated with rofecoxib due to other indications. These preliminary clinical data are encouraging for therapeutic effects of the selective COX-2 inhibitors in psychiatric disorders, although these effects have to be confirmed in bigger clinical studies.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Preliminary evidence suggests anti-inflammatory agents may have beneficial effects on mood.
“Preliminary evidence from studies among patients treated with anti-inflammatory agents for other indications suggests that these agents may have beneficial effects on mood.51”
From Association of depressive disorders, depression characteristics and antidepressant medication with inflammation (2012) · cites this paper as [51]
Cited by
Sorted by citations
A Meta-Analysis of Cytokines in Major Depression
Dowlati, Y., Herrmann, N., Swardfager, W., Liu, H., Sham, L., Reim, E. K., & Lanctôt, K. L. (2010) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2009.09.033 · Cited by 4,729 · see citing works
Harris, R. E. (2009) · Inflammopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s10787-009-8049-8 · Cited by 329 · see citing works
“…(Singh et al., 2004), hepatitis viruses (Cheng et al., 2004), and the Epstein Barr virus (Kaul et al., 2006), hypoxia (Ji et al., 1998), hormones (Diaz-Cruz and Brueggemeier, 2006), neurotransmitters (Muller et al., 2004), shear stress (Inoue et al., 2002), and endotoxins (Bezugla et al., 2006).”
BackgroundVogelzangs, N., Duivis, H. E., Beekman, A. T. F., Kluft, C., Neuteboom, J., Hoogendijk, W., Smit, J. H., de Jonge, P., & Penninx, B. W. J. H. (2012) · Translational Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/tp.2012.8 · Cited by 323 · see citing works
“indications suggests that these agents may have beneficial effects on mood.(51) One study found positive effects on mood in medically healthy, major depressed patients.”
BackgroundElevated levels of kynurenic acid in the cerebrospinal fluid of male patients with schizophrenia.
Nilsson, L., Linderholm, K., Engberg, G., Paulson, L., Blennow, K., Lindström, L., Nordin, C., Karanti, A., Persson, P., & Erhardt, S. (2005) · Schizophrenia Research · doi:10.1016/j.schres.2005.07.013 · Cited by 257 · see citing works
Strous, R. D., & Shoenfeld, Y. (2006) · Journal of Autoimmunity · doi:10.1016/j.jaut.2006.07.006 · Cited by 225 · see citing works
Schizophrenia as an inflammation-mediated dysbalance of glutamatergic neurotransmission
Müller, N., & Schwarz, M. (2006) · Neurotoxicity Research · doi:10.1007/bf03033242 · Cited by 214 · see citing works
Self-citationMartín-Vázquez, E., Cobo‐Vuilleumier, N., López–Noriega, L., Lorenzo, P. I., & Gauthier, B. R. (2023) · International Journal of Biological Sciences · doi:10.7150/ijbs.86492 · Cited by 198 · see citing works
Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and the Inflammogenesis of Cancer
Harris, R. E. (2007) · Sub-cellular biochemistry/Subcellular biochemistry · doi:10.1007/1-4020-5688-5_4 · Cited by 181 · see citing works
Pharmacological Manipulation of Kynurenic Acid
Erhardt, S., Olsson, S. K., & Engberg, G. (2009) · CNS Drugs · doi:10.2165/00023210-200923020-00001 · Cited by 165 · see citing works
Neuroinflammation and cognition across psychiatric conditions
Fourrier, C., Singhal, G., & Baune, B. T. (2019) · CNS Spectrums · doi:10.1017/s1092852918001499 · Cited by 145 · see citing works
Vogelzangs, N., Beekman, A. T., van Reedt Dortland, A. K., Schoevers, R. A., Giltay, E. J., de Jonge, P., & Penninx, B. W. (2014) · Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1038/npp.2014.9 · Cited by 133 · see citing works
“Preliminary evidence from studies among patients treated with anti-inflammatory agents for other indications suggests that these agents may have beneficial effects on mood (Muller et al, 2004).”
BackgroundCSF and plasma cytokines at delivery and postpartum mood disturbances
Boufidou, F., Lambrinoudaki, I., Argeitis, J., Zervas, I. M., Pliatsika, P., Leonardou, A. A., Petropoulos, G., Hassiakos, D., Papadias, K., & Nikolaou, C. (2008) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2008.07.008 · Cited by 118 · see citing works
“Additionally, the existence of a brain– cytokine system that reorganizes perception and action of the host in response to activation of the peripheral innate immune system (Dantzer, 2004) is an interesting model with possible important implications in pathophysiology and therapeutics (Müller et al., 2004).”
Backgroundde Bartolomeis, A., Barone, A., Vellucci, L., Mazza, B., Austin, M. C., Iasevoli, F., & Ciccarelli, M. (2022) · Molecular Neurobiology · doi:10.1007/s12035-022-02976-3 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
Doorduin, J., de Vries, E. F. J., Dierckx, R. A. J. O., & Klein, H. (2008) · Current Pharmaceutical Design · doi:10.2174/138161208786549443 · Cited by 107 · see citing works
The immunological basis of glutamatergic disturbance in schizophrenia: towards an integrated view
Müller, N., & Schwarz, M. (2007) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-211-73574-9_33 · Cited by 107 · see citing works
Self-citationApplications of blood-based protein biomarker strategies in the study of psychiatric disorders
Chan, M. K., Gottschalk, M. G., Haenisch, F., Tomasik, J., Ruland, T., Rahmoune, H., Guest, P. C., & Bahn, S. (2014) · Progress in Neurobiology · doi:10.1016/j.pneurobio.2014.08.002 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
“treated with amisulpride and placebo (Muller et al., 2004; Akhondzadeh et al., 2007; Muller et al., 2010).”
Lee, Y., Kim, H., Brahim, J. S., Rowan, J. S., Lee, G. S., & Dionne, R. A. (2006) · Pain · doi:10.1016/j.pain.2006.10.020 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
“…changes in gene expressions cannot fully explain diversity of clinical responses to analgesic medications as acetaminophen (Bonnefont et al., 2003; Altman, 2004), NSAIDs (Bjorkman, 1995) and selective COX-2 inhibitors (Ibuki et al., 2003; Muller et al., 2004) which also have central effects.”
BackgroundAdvanced Glycation and Lipoxidation End Products–Amplifiers of Inflammation: The Role of Food
Bengmark, S. (2007) · Journal of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition · doi:10.1177/0148607107031005430 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
Reyes‐Gibby, C. C., Wang, J., Spitz, M. R., Wu, X., Yennurajalingam, S., & Shete, S. S. (2012) · Journal of Pain and Symptom Management · doi:10.1016/j.jpainsymman.2012.07.019 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
Evidence for an Immune Role on Cognition in Schizophrenia: A Systematic Review
Ribeiro-Santos, R., Teixeira, A. L., & Salgado, J. V. (2014) · Current Neuropharmacology · doi:10.2174/1570159x1203140511160832 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
“Hence, COX-2 inhibition seems to balance type 1/ type 2 immune responses by inhibition of PGE2 and stimulation of type 1 immune response, and also by inhibition of KYNA (kynurenic acid) production [50].”
BackgroundCoelho, F. M., Reis, H. J., Nicolato, R., Romano‐Silva, M. A., Teixeira, M. M., Bauer, M. E., & Teixeira, A. L. (2008) · NeuroImmunoModulation · doi:10.1159/000148197 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
“did not find different levels of these anti-inflammatory molecules in schizophrenia, circulating levels of TNF-α were significantly higher in patients than in controls. Similarly, Muller et al. [”
ResultReyes‐Gibby, C. C., Swartz, M. D., Yu, X., Wu, X., Yennurajalingam, S., Anderson, K. O., Spitz, M. R., & Shete, S. S. (2013) · Supportive Care in Cancer · doi:10.1007/s00520-013-1885-5 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
“More recently, a randomized placebo-controlled trial showed that as an add-on strategy for the treatment of depression, COX-2 inhibitors (Celecoxib) resulted in a significant reduction of Hamilton Depression Scale scores [37].”
Johansson, D., Falk, A., Marcus, M. M., & Svensson, T. H. (2012) · Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.pnpbp.2012.06.003 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Brain Protection in Schizophrenia, Mood and Cognitive Disorders
Ritsner, M. S. (2010) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-90-481-8553-5 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
De Simone, G., Mazza, B., Vellucci, L., Barone, A., Ciccarelli, M., & de Bartolomeis, A. (2023) · Antioxidants · doi:10.3390/antiox12040975 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Cassano, P., Hidalgo, A., Burgos, V. L., Adris, S., & Argibay, P. F. (2006) · The Pharmacogenomics Journal · doi:10.1038/sj.tpj.6500385 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Myelination in Bipolar Patients and the Effects of Mood Stabilizers on Brain Anatomy
Brambilla, P., Bellani, M., Yeh, P., & Soares, J. C. (2009) · Current Pharmaceutical Design · doi:10.2174/138161209788957519 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Reduction in cancer risk by selective and nonselective cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) inhibitors
Harris, R., Beebe, & Alshafie (2012) · Journal of Experimental Pharmacology · doi:10.2147/jep.s23826 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Circulating levels of sTNFR1 as a marker of severe clinical course in schizophrenia
Noto, C. D. S., Gadelha, A., Belangero, S. I., Spíndola, L., Rocha, N. P., de Miranda, A. S., Teixeira, A. L., Smith, M. D. A. C., Mari, J. D. J., Bressan, R. A., et al. (2013) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2012.12.010 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Does Systemic Inflammation Play a Role in Pediatric Psychosis?
Falcone, T., Carlton, E. F., Lee, C., Janigro, M., Fazio, V., Forcén, F. E., Franco, K. S. N., & Janigro, D. (2013) · Clinical Schizophrenia & Related Psychoses · doi:10.3371/csrp.faca.030813 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Metabolomics Biomarkers for Precision Psychiatry
Shih, P.-A. B. (2019) · Advances in experimental medicine and biology · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-21735-8_10 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Guest, F. L., Guest, P. C., & Martins‐de‐Souza, D. (2016) · Biomarkers in Medicine · doi:10.2217/bmm-2015-0055 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Müller, N. (2008) · Expert Opinion on Therapeutic Targets · doi:10.1517/14728220802507852 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
“With regard to the role of the inflammatory process in schizophrenia and possibly other psychiatric disorders, antiinflammatory therapy should be the focus of further research [82] ; COX-2 inhibition is one option among others.”
BackgroundSelf-citationKotkowska, Z., & Strzelecki, D. (2022) · Pharmaceuticals · doi:10.3390/ph15040391 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
“It is worth noting that preliminary data suggest that anti-inflammatory drugs may be useful in mood disorders—it has been reported that in patients treated with rofecoxib and celecoxib, the depressive symptoms’ improvement was more pronounced than in the group not treated with these drugs [79,80].”
BackgroundXia, X. H., Pan, Y., Zhang, W., Cheng, G. S., & Kong, L. (2006) · Biological and Pharmaceutical Bulletin · doi:10.1248/bpb.29.938 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
The use of Proteomic Biomarkers for Improved Diagnosis and Stratification Of Schizophrenia Patients
Guest, P. C., Chan, M. K., Gottschalk, M. G., & Bahn, S. (2013) · Biomarkers in Medicine · doi:10.2217/bmm.13.83 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Functional Polymorphism of Cyclooxygenase-2 Gene (G–765C) in Depressive Patients
Gałecki, P., Florkowski, A., Bieńkiewicz, M., & Szemraj, J. (2010) · Neuropsychobiology · doi:10.1159/000317284 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Anti-Inflammatory Drugs in Psychiatry
Berthold‐Losleben, M., Heitmann, S., & Himmerich, H. (2009) · Inflammation & Allergy - Drug Targets · doi:10.2174/187152809789352221 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
“There is evidence that COX-2 inhibitors reduce the level of kynurenic acid [65, 47].”
BackgroundMamalakis, G., Jansen, E. H. J. M., Cremers, H., Kiriakakis, M., Tsibinos, G., & Kafatos, A. (2006) · European Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602413 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
“It has been proposed that elevated levels of PGE2 are implicated in depression (Lieb et al., 1983; Linnoila et al., 1983; Calabrese et al., 1986; European Journal of Clinical Nutrition Ohishi et al., 1988; Nishino et al., 1989; Colin et al., 2003; Myint and Kim 2003; Muller et al., 2004).”
BackgroundBoiko, A. S., Mednova, I. A., Kornetova, E. G., Gerasimova, V. I., Корнетов, А. Н., LOONEN, A. J. M., Bokhan, N. A., & Ivanova, S. А. (2021) · Pharmaceuticals · doi:10.3390/ph14050446 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Basselin, M., Villacreses, N. E., Langenbach, R. I., Ma, K., Bell, J. M., & Rapoport, S. I. (2006) · Journal of Neurochemistry · doi:10.1111/j.1471-4159.2005.03612.x · Cited by 27 · see citing works
“Inhibition of AA conversion to prostanoids by COX-2, following activation of cholinergic M1,3,5 receptors that are coupled to cPLA2, may explain why NSAIDS can interfere with cognition in humans (Muller et al. 2004; Onder et al. 2004) and with spatial learning in rats (Shaw et al. 2003).”
BackgroundProteomic profiling in schizophrenia: enabling stratification for more effective treatment
Guest, P. C., Martins‐de‐Souza, D., Schwarz, E., Rahmoune, H., Alsaif, M., Tomasik, J., Turck, C. W., & Bahn, S. (2013) · Genome Medicine · doi:10.1186/gm429 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
“Recent studies have explored the possibility of using immunomodulatory drugs such as cyclooxygenase2 inhi bi tors for treatment of schizophrenia symptoms [49,50].”
BackgroundImmunologische Aspekte bei schizophrenen Störungen
Müller, N., & Schwarz, M. (2006) · Der Nervenarzt · doi:10.1007/s00115-006-2108-9 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Self-citationNuclear Imaging of Inflammation in Neurologic and Psychiatric Disorders
de Vries, E. F. J., Dierckx, R., & Klein, H. C. (2006) · Current Clinical Pharmacology · doi:10.2174/157488406778249334 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
“Intervening in the inflammatory cascade with inhibitors of COX-2 enzyme in subjects with schizophrenia has shown positive results on cognition [82].”
BackgroundMaier, C. (2008) · Der Schmerz · doi:10.1007/s00482-008-0716-y · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Role of inflammation and cellular stress in brain injury and central nervous system diseases
Barone, F. C., & Kilgore, K. S. (2006) · Clinical Neuroscience Research · doi:10.1016/j.cnr.2006.09.010 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Basselin, M., Villacreses, N. E., Lee, H., Bell, J. M., & Rapoport, S. I. (2007) · Neurochemical Research · doi:10.1007/s11064-007-9372-3 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“PGE2 formation via COX-2 following muscarinic receptor activation may be related to some reported negative effects of COX-2 inhibitors on cognition in humans [44, 48] and on spatial learning in rats [64], as the cholinergic system is thought to influence memory and learning [2].”
Occult Cardiotoxicity—Toxic Effects on Cardiac Ischemic Tolerance
Golomb, E., Nyska, A., & Schwalb, H. (2009) · Toxicologic Pathology · doi:10.1177/0192623309339503 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“…inflammatory disorders such as osteoarthritis, acute pain, rheumatoid arthritis (Matheson and Figgitt 2001), and dysmenorrhea (Harel 2004) but also treatment and prevention of cancer (Umar et al. 2003; Arber 2008) and a potential effect in psychiatric disorders (Müller, Riedel, and Schwarz 2004).”
BackgroundAnti-inflammatory therapy with a COX-2 inhibitor in Tourette’s syndrome
Müller, N. (2004) · Inflammopharmacology · doi:10.1163/1568560042342338 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Self-citationSteiner, J. H., Guest, P. C., Rahmoune, H., & Martins‐de‐Souza, D. (2016) · Methods in molecular biology · doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-6730-8_2 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Steiner, J. H., Guest, P. C., & Martins‐de‐Souza, D. (2017) · Advances in experimental medicine and biology · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-52479-5_1 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Bengmark, S., & Gil, Á. (2007) · Hispana · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Metabolomics: A Global Biochemical Approach to the Discovery of Biomarkers for Psychiatric Disorders
Kaddurah-Daouk, R. F., Soares, J. C., & Quinones, M. P. (2008) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-0-387-79251-4_6 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Wang, P., Guan, X., Su, X., Wu, F., & Xiu, M. (2023) · Schizophrenia · doi:10.1038/s41537-023-00386-5 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“It not only interacts with neurotransmitters such as serotonin, acetylcholine, and glutamate but also participates in the regulation of the immune system and CSN in fl ammation through the action of prostaglandins 14 .”
BackgroundCytokines, Immunity and Schizophrenia with Emphasis on Underlying Neurochemical Mechanisms
Müller, N., & Schwarz, M. (2008) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-0-387-84851-8_15 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Self-citationROLE OF ENZYMES IN THE PATHOGENESIS OF DEPRESSION
Walia, V. (2016) · Journal of Critical Reviews · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Ibuprofen in the Prevention and Therapy of Cancer
Harris, R. E. (2015) · doi:10.1002/9781118743614.ch13 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Common Pathways to Neurodegeneration and Co-morbid Depression
Litteljohn, D., Mangano, E. N., & Hayley, S. P. (2010) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-90-481-8553-5_8 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“There has even been some clinical evidence to suggest that the COX-2 inhibitor, celecoxib, improved cognition in schizophrenic, as well as depressed patients [445].”
Paulson, L., Nilsson-Todd, L. K., Linderholm, K. R., et al. (2008) · Journal of Proteomics & Bioinformatics · doi:10.4172/jpb.1000014 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Strategies to Identify Biomarkers for Depression
Páez-Pereda, M., & Panhuysen, M. (2008) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-0-387-79251-4_13 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Depressive psychosis associated with a cyclo oxygenase 2 inhibitor (meloxicam)
White, D., & McCauley, M. (2010) · Irish Journal of Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0790966700001373 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Kotkowska, Z., & Strzelecki, D. (2021) · Preprints.org · doi:10.20944/preprints202107.0507.v1 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“This effect at least partially may be related to the analgesic effect of the COX-2 inhibitors, but studies on rats showed that use of rofecoxib leads to serotonin increase in frontal, parietal and temporal cortex, which may indicate their other-than-analgesic mechanism of action [42].”
BackgroundResultSchizophrenie, Entzündung und glutamaterge Neurotransmission: ein pathophysiologisches Modell
Müller, N., & Schwarz, M. (2006) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/3-211-29109-1_8
Self-citationGlutamatergic mechanisms in schizophrenia : Role of endogenous kynurenic acid
Nilsson, L. K. (2005) · Figshare
Samadi, R., Manteghi, A. A., Haghighi, M. B., Azhari, A., & Assari, S. (2015) · International Journal of Travel Medicine and Global Health · doi:10.20286/ijtmgh-030111
What Have Proteomic Studies Taught Us About Novel Drug Targets in Autism?
Guest, P. C., & Martins‐de‐Souza, D. (2017) · Advances in experimental medicine and biology · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-52479-5_3
(2007) · Steinkopff eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-7985-1787-5_7
Hypothesis of neuroinflammation in depression
Dolfi, A., & Talasman, A.-A. (2017) · Romanian Journal of Psychiatry & Psychotherapy · doi:10.37897/rjpp.2017.4.5
Murda, B. K. K., Nugroho, I., & Herdaetha, A. (2023) · JUXTA Jurnal Ilmiah Mahasiswa Kedokteran Universitas Airlangga · doi:10.20473/juxta.v14i22023.63-69
- Authors
- Müller, N., Riedel, M., & Schwarz, M. J.
- Affiliations
- Klinik und Poliklinik für Psychiatrie und Psychotherapie (DE)
- Venue
- Pharmacopsychiatry
- Publisher
- Georg Thieme Verlag KG
- Published
- 2004-11
- Volume
- 37
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 266-269
- ISSN
- 0176-3679 (ISSN-L)
- 1439-0795
- OpenAlex
- W2004078557
- Cited by
- 71
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2023: 4 · 2022: 2 · 2021: 2 · 2019: 2 · 2017: 3 · 2016: 3 · 2015: 2 · 2014: 3 · 2013: 5 · 2012: 4
- FWCI
- 3.09
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- de
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Pharmacopsychiatry (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Biological Psychiatry › Tryptophan and brain disorders
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Pharmacology › Inflammatory mediators and NSAID effects
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Pharmacology › Treatment of Major Depression
- Keywords
- COX-2 inhibitors, celecoxib, rofecoxib, schizophrenia, depression, Alzheimer's disease, cognitive impairment, neuroinflammation, prostaglandin E2, psychopharmacological treatment
- MeSH terms
- Mental Disorders, Cognition Disorders, Depressive Disorder, Drug Therapy, Humans, Schizophrenia, Antipsychotic Agents, Cyclooxygenase Inhibitors
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
