Countering dis/misinformation sharing by hindering moral disengagement in adolescence: the role of prosocial conversational modeling

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The video game Bad News was specifically designed to simulate the creation of fake news through strategies including bias, discrediting, and emotionally charged language.

“This game was specifically designed to simulate the creation of fake news through the use of several commonly employed strategies, including the introduction of bias, discrediting, and the use of emotionally charged language.”

• cites Roozenbeek & Van Der Linden, 2019 sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Mardia's test indicated a significant departure from normality for multivariate skewness (404.54, p < .001), but not for kurtosis (0.33, p = .740).

“Mardia's test of multivariate normality indicated a significant departure from normality for multivariate skewness (404.54,p < .001),but not for kurtosis (0.33, p = .740).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Interest in specific dis/misinformation risks was positively correlated with perceived agency of the model.

“interest in specific dis/misinformation risks was positively correlated with perceived agency of the model”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Age did not show significant correlations with any of the model variables.

“Age did not show significant correlations with any of the model variables.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Quality of conversation was positively correlated only with news sharing intention measured after the interaction.

“Quality of conversation was positively correlated only with news sharing intention measured after the interaction.”

The quote only partly states this claim.

Male participants reported lower levels of prosocial communicative response than female participants.

“while also reporting lower levels of prosocial communicative response”

May combine two claims.

In the same sample, prosocial communicative responses were associated with reduced reliance on moral disengagement and lower misleading news sharing intention.

“In turn, prosocial communicative responses were associated with reduced reliance on moral disengagement and lower misleading news sharing intention.”

The quote only partly states this claim.

In a sample of 391 adolescents (53.2% girls; mean age 13.27 years, SD = 0.69), perceiving conversational agents as an agentic model was positively associated with prosocial communicative responses aimed at helping another party.

“Results from a path analysis model show that perceiving conversational agents as an agentic model was positively associated with prosocial communicative responses aimed at helping another party.”

May combine two claims.

The overall model explained 25% of the total variance in the intention to share misleading news, 30% of the variance in moral disengagement toward fake news, and 14% of the variance in prosocial communicative response.

“The overall model explained 25% of the total variance in the intention to share misleading news, 30% of the variance in moral disengagement toward fake news, and 14% of the variance in prosocial communicative response.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Across all item-level specifications, the structural paths of theoretical interest were directionally consistent with the main model, with no reversals in sign or emergence of unexpected effects.

“Across all item-level specifications, the structural paths of theoretical interest were directionally consistent with the main model, with no reversals in sign or emergence of unexpected effects”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Technology has the capacity to elicit positive emotions alongside prosocial behaviors.

“These elements can facilitate positive activation and interest during the mediated interaction, as technology has the capacity to elicit positive emotions alongside prosocial behaviors (Carlo et al., 2005;Greitemeyer, 2009;Niesta Kayser et al., 2010).”

• cites Carlo et al., 2005Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Greitemeyer, 2009Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Niesta Kayser et al., 2010Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The web-app procedure was administered only if appropriate signed informed consent was obtained from the students' legal guardians.

“the procedure via web-app was administered only if appropriate signed informed consent was obtained from the students' legal guardians”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

These studies demonstrate the significant influence of design and the interaction between individual and contextual factors.

“These studies demonstrate the significant influence of design and the interaction between individual and contextual factors (Carlo et al., 2005;Oliveira et al., 2021).”

• cites Carlo et al., 2005Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Oliveira et al., 2021Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

No research has examined the potential role of conversational agents to serve as prosocial models for encouraging adolescents to mitigate the spread of dis/misinformation.

“Nevertheless, to the best of our knowledge, no research has examined the potential role of conversational agents to serve as prosocial models for encouraging adolescents to mitigate the spread of dis/misinformation, ultimately contributing to the safeguarding of the community from the temptation of moral disengagement and the risks associated with the sharing of such misleading news.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). The quote only partly states this claim.

The internal consistency of the four prosocial communicative response items was low (Cronbach's alpha = .48; McDonald's Omega = .49).

“The internal consistency of these items was determined using Cronbach's alpha (α = .48)and McDonald's Omega (ω = .49).”

May combine two claims.

Affordances and psycho-technological mechanisms such as confirmation bias, social conformism, filter bubbles, and echo chambers have been recognised as potential risk factors that could trigger moral disengagement processes, promoting online credulity and facilitating misleading news sharing behavior.

“the affordances and thus known psycho-technological mechanisms of almost automatic adherence to popular or familiar content, as in the case of confirmation bias and social conformism (Cinelli et al., 2021;Del Vicario et al., 2017), filter bubble (Parisier, 2011) and echo chambers (Bright, 2016), have been recognised as potential risk factors that could trigger moral disengagement processes”

• cites Runions & Bak, 2015Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Wang & Ngai, 2020Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Cinelli et al., 2021Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Prior work shows that virtual agents mitigate social-desirability bias by reducing perceived judgement from human evaluators.

“Prior work further shows that virtual agents mitigate such bias by reducing perceived judgement from human evaluators (Schuetzler et al., 2018).”

• cites Schuetzler et al., 2018 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The response options for the prosocial communicative response items were shown in random order.

“The responses were shown in random order”

May combine two claims.

The link to moral disengagement is evidenced by observations in other contexts in which self-serving mechanisms enable an individual to perceive omission of help, silence in the face of inefficiencies, harm or unethical practices, lack of information verification, and cyberloafing as appropriate or acceptable behaviours.

“The link to moral disengagement is evidenced by observations made in other contexts in which these self-serving mechanisms enable an individual to perceive omission of help (Paciello et al., 2013), silent in face inefficiencies, harm or unethical practices (Fida et al. 2025)”

• cites Paciello et al., 2013 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Fida et al. 2025Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The two misleading news sharing intention ratings were moderately correlated (r = .47, p < .001), indicating some story-specific variability.

“The two sharing intention ratings, one for each news story, were moderately correlated (r = .47,p < .001),indicating some story-specific variability in responses.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Sharing misleading news may take the form of relatively passive harmful conduct, sustained by moral disengagement processes that bypass the cognitive and moral regulation required for responsible actions such as verifying information accuracy before sharing.

“Rather, it may take the form of a relatively passive harmful conduct, sustained by moral disengagement processes that bypass the cognitive and moral regulation required for engaging in responsible actions, such as verifying information accuracy before sharing.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: Sharing misleading news is not invariably the result of a deliberate intention to cause harm.

May combine two claims.

The presence of a credible and fluid conversation is a crucial element, as is the agent's perceived autonomy.

“Additionally, the presence of a credible and fluid conversation is a crucial element, as is the agent's perceived autonomy (Paiva et al., 2021).”

• cites Paiva et al., 2021Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Dis/misinformation research about intervention has traditionally prioritized cognitive and evaluative variables, neglecting the potential role of moral disengagement.

“this study addresses a significant gap in dis/misinformation research about intervention, which has traditionally prioritized cognitive and evaluative variables, neglecting the potential role of moral disengagement.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The completion of shared playful tasks has been demonstrated to facilitate prosocial behaviors following interaction with conversational prosocial agents.

“the completion of shared playful tasks (Avelino et al., 2018) has been demonstrated to facilitate prosocial behaviors following the interaction with conversational prosocial agents, as observed in the study using Lego pieces (Connolly et al., 2020).”

• cites Avelino et al., 2018Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Connolly et al., 2020Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The moralistic self-enhancement subscale had acceptable internal consistency (alpha = .65; Omega = .66).

“acceptable for moralistic self-enhancement (α = .65;ω = .66)”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

No participants declined to participate or withdrew from the study.

“No participants declined to participate or withdrew from the study.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A substantial body of research in media psychology has examined the ways in which different types of media can influence the formation and expression of prosocial intentions and behaviors among users.

“a substantial body of research in the field of media psychology has examined the ways in which different types of media can influence the formation and expression of prosocial intentions and behaviors among users (for a review see : Greitemeyer, 2022).”

• cites Greitemeyer, 2022Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The efficacy of prosocial conversational agents in promoting prosocial intentions or behaviors is contingent upon factors that can influence the quality of user-avatar interaction, including the characteristics of the agent, its physical appearance, and its ability to establish an interesting or emotional connection.

“The efficacy of these agents in promoting prosocial intentions or behaviors is contingent upon a number of factors that can influence the quality of user-avatar interaction, including the characteristics of the prosocial agent, its physical appearance, and its ability to establish an interesting or emotional connection.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Robust fit indices were reported to account for distributional departures.

“Robust fit indices (Satorra & Bentler, 2001) were reported to account for distributional departures”

• cites Satorra & Bentler, 2001 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The proliferation of dis/misinformation appears to be associated with a tendency to avoid verification of its veracity and accuracy.

“the proliferation of dis/misinformation appears to be associated with a tendency to avoid verification of its veracity and accuracy”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The platform's step-by-step interactive design allowed participants to progress through the conversation autonomously, making the guided conversation exposure as comparable as possible while minimising peer influence.

“The platform's step-by-step interactive design allowed participants to progress through the conversation autonomously, to make the guided conversation exposure as comparable as possible while minimising peer influence.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

A composite score was computed as the mean of the four prosocial communicative response items to reflect overall task performance.

“A composite score was computed as the mean of the four items to reflect overall task performance (Diamantopoulos & Winklhofer, 2001).”

• cites Diamantopoulos & Winklhofer, 2001Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A recent review indicated that, with respect to agents, both virtual and robotic, positive outcomes have been observed.

“A recent review (Oliveira et al., 2021) indicated that, with respect to agents, both virtual and robotic, positive outcomes have been observed (Peter et al., 2021).”

• cites Oliveira et al., 2021Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Peter et al., 2021Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The review emphasized that, alongside the heterogeneity of the measures employed, there is a need to test the applicative nature of the effect of conversational prosocial agents.

“However, it also emphasized that, alongside the heterogeneity of the measures employed, there is a need to test the applicative nature of the effect of conversational prosocial agents.”

• cites Oliveira et al., 2021Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The two misleading news sharing intention ratings were averaged to create an overall sharing intention score.

“Consequently, the two ratings were averaged to create an overall sharing intention score.”

May combine two claims.

The web-app's chat format lowers self-presentation concerns commonly associated with questionnaire administration and thus attenuates social-desirability bias.

“This format lowers self-presentation concerns commonly associated with questionnaire administration and thus attenuates social-desirability bias (Achterkamp et al., 2016;Pollini et al., 2023).”

• cites Achterkamp et al., 2016Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Pollini et al., 2023Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The study design and procedures received approval from the ethics committee of the university with which three of the authors are affiliated (reference code ET-24-14).

“The study design and procedures received approval from the ethics committee of the university with which three of the authors are affiliated (reference code ET-24-14).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Exposure to prosocial video games can facilitate the accessibility of prosocial thoughts, thereby promoting prosocial behavior.

“Greitemeyer and Osswald (2010) demonstrate that exposure to prosocial video games can facilitate the accessibility of prosocial thoughts, thereby promoting prosocial behavior.”

• cites Greitemeyer and Osswald (2010)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

All data analysis code and the fully executed knitted output are publicly available on the Open Science Framework (OSF).

“All data analysis code, along with the fully executed knitted output, are publicly available on the Open Science Framework (OSF)”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Engaging in conversation with a virtual agent coupled with the possibility of performing a task together may serve as an additional factor in promoting prosocial behaviors.

“the review conducted by Oliveira and colleagues (2021) suggests that engaging in conversation with a virtual agent coupled with the possibility of performing a task together may serve as an additional factor in promoting prosocial behaviors.”

• cites Oliveira et al., 2021Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

The impact of prosocial modeling on a young user's moral disengagement mechanisms remains empirically unexplored.

“the impact of prosocial modeling on a young user's moral disengagement mechanisms remains empirically unexplored.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The score associated with the dialogue response lines was not disclosed to the user.

“the score associated with the dialogue response lines was not disclosed to the user”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

The disengagement mechanism represents heuristic reasoning of convenience that causes individuals to diminish and underestimate the dissemination of distorted information and its consequences.

“The disengagement mechanism represents heuristic reasoning of convenience that causes individuals to diminish and underestimate the dissemination of distorted information and its consequences”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The model included as covariates gender, age, socially desirable responding, and baseline levels of misleading news sharing intention and moral disengagement toward fake news, to minimize potential influence of confounding variables.

“To minimize the potential influence of confounding variables through the involved processes, the model included as covariates the gender and age of respondent, socially desirable responding, as well as the levels of misleading news sharing intention and moral disengagement toward fake news measured at the beginning of the web-app.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

An intervention employing gamification-based logic, incentives and scores has the potential to foster resilience to dis/misinformation, which appears to persist over time.

“Such an intervention, which employs gamification-based logic, incentives and scores, has the potential to foster resilience to dis/misinformation, which appears to persist over time (Maertens et al., 2021).”

• cites Maertens et al., 2021 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Observing a prosocial model not only demonstrates what behaviors are feasible but also promotes the adoption of the underlying prosocial goal.

“Indeed, observing a prosocial model not only demonstrates what behaviors are feasible but also promotes the adoption of the underlying prosocial goal (Jung et al., 2020).”

• cites Jung et al., 2020Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The sessions were overseen by two trained researchers who provided technical assistance while avoiding any substantive interaction with the task content.

“The sessions were scheduled one or two weeks apart, and were overseen by two trained researchers who provided technical assistance while avoiding any substantive interaction with the task content.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

The model was estimated by maximum likelihood, and inference for all parameters was based on 95% bias-corrected and accelerated bootstrap confidence intervals computed from 5000 resamples.

“the model was estimated by maximum likelihood, and inference for all parameters was based on 95% bias-corrected and accelerated (BCa) bootstrap confidence intervals computed from 5000 resamples”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The egoistic self-enhancement subscale had good internal consistency (alpha = .80; Omega = .80).

“Internal consistency was good for egoistic self-enhancement (α = .80;ω = .80)”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

Technologies designed based on theoretical models and intervention strategies developed to understand human behavior can represent a valuable resource.

“when technologies are designed based on theoretical models and intervention strategies developed to understand human behavior, they can represent a valuable resource (Greitemeyer & Osswald, 2010).”

• cites Greitemeyer & Osswald, 2010Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The literature on dis/misinformation and disengagement suggests that a reflective and analytical mode of thinking may be a key factor in counteracting cognitive distortions and that consciously designed technologies could help counteract disengagement.

“The literature on dis/misinformation and disengagement is rapidly evolving, suggesting that a reflective and analytical mode of thinking may be a key factor in counteracting cognitive distortions (D'Errico et al., 2023; Herrero-Diz et al., 2020) and that consciously designed technologies could help counteract disengagement.”

• cites D'Errico et al., 2023Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Herrero-Diz et al., 2020Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The literature on online sharing and prosocial intentions highlights a relationship that is not always straightforward, as users may share information hastily with the intention of helping others yet without verifying its validity.

“the literature on online sharing and prosocial intentions highlights a relationship that is not always straightforward (Mazhar et al., 2024), as users may share information hastily with the intention of helping others yet without verifying its validity.”

• cites Mazhar et al., 2024Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

This research was conducted in accordance with the principles of the WMA Declaration of Helsinki (2013) and the Ethical Code of the Italian Psychology Association (AIP).

“This research was conducted in accordance with the principles of the WMA Declaration of Helsinki (2013) and the Ethical Code of the Italian Psychology Association (AIP).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

This result corroborates previous findings attesting to the role of prosocial peer influence on the development of prosocial behaviors and the positive effect of prosocial artificial agents.

“This result corroborates previous findings attesting to the role of prosocial peer influence on the development of prosocial behaviors (Busching & Krahé, 2020) and the positive effect of prosocial artificial agents (Oliveira et al., 2021;Peter et al., 2021).”

• cites Busching & Krahé, 2020Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Oliveira et al., 2021Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Peter et al., 2021Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The research was reviewed and approved by the Ethics Committee of the University of [omitted for blind review]; approval was granted on the 20th of May 2024 under protocol number ET-24-14.

“The research was reviewed and approved by the Ethics Committee of the University of [omitted for blind review]; approval was granted on the 20 th of May 2024 under protocol number ET-24-14.”

May combine two claims.

Self-persuasive processes reinforce the acquisitions derived from modeling and reduce the recourse to moral disengagement mechanisms and related sharing behaviors.

“they activate selfpersuasive processes (Aronson, 1999) that reinforce the acquisitions derived from modeling and, at the same time, reduce the recourse to moral disengagement mechanisms and related sharing behaviors.”

• cites Aronson, 1999Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

Individuals must first acquire the necessary skills to help others; otherwise, the role of prosocial behavior can be ambiguous.

“individuals must first acquire the necessary skills to help others; otherwise, the role of prosocial behavior can be ambiguous.”

May combine two claims.

Through interaction with a prosocial agent, individuals can learn not only to disengage morally but also to disengage less.

“through interaction with a prosocial agent, individuals can learn not only to disengage morally but also to disengage less.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

Conversational tools could be flexible instruments for both research and intervention, as they allow the simultaneous observation of socio-cognitive processes and the manipulation of interaction scenarios within a controlled environment.

“From a methodological standpoint, this study points out that conversational tools could be flexible instruments for both research and intervention, as they allow the simultaneous observation of socio-cognitive processes and the manipulation of interaction scenarios within a controlled environment.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

As a sensitivity check, the full path model was re-estimated four times, each time replacing the prosocial communicative response composite score with single constituent items.

“As a sensitivity check, the full path model was re-estimated four times, each time replacing the prosocial communicative response composite score with single constituent items.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Although the model is adjusted for baseline levels and relevant covariates, the estimated paths and indirect effects should be interpreted as conditional associations rather than causal effects.

“although the model is adjusted for baseline levels and relevant covariates, the estimated paths and indirect effects should be interpreted as conditional associations rather than causal effects.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Since disengagement mechanisms function as heuristic justifications for harmful actions, reducing their activation fosters a prosocial moral coherence.

“Since disengagement mechanisms function as heuristic justifications for harmful actions, reducing their activation fosters a prosocial moral coherence.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The sample was drawn from a specific geographical region.

“the sample was drawn from a specific geographical region”

May combine two claims.

Targeting moral disengagement represents a key element, as it is a precursor to harmful online conduct.

“targeting moral disengagement represents a key element, as it is a precursor to harmful online conduct (Runions & Bak, 2015;Falla et al., 2021).”

• cites Runions & Bak, 2015Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Falla et al., 2021Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

No participant or legal guardian declined participation or withdrew during the study.

“No participant or legal guardian declined participation or withdrew during the study.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

By framing the interaction as a peer-modeling and self-persuasion exercise where the user takes on the role of the expert to help a third party, the intervention shifts the focus from passive learning to an active practice exercise.

“By framing the interaction as a peer-modeling and self-persuasion exercise where the user takes on the role of the expert to help a third party, the intervention shifts the focus from passive learning to an active practice exercise.”

May combine two claims.

Prosocial communication has been identified as a potentially effective intervention: prosocial induction can counter misleading content by activating self-persuasion processes, such as through saying-is-believing exercises, with effects that persist over time.

“prosocial communication has been identified as a potentially effective intervention: prosocial induction can counter misleading content by activating self-persuasion processes, such as through “saying-is-believing” exercises (Aronson, 1999), with effects that persist over time (Orosz et al., 2023).”

• cites Aronson, 1999Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Orosz et al., 2023Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

This interactive format offers a promising means of orienting human action toward desirable prosocial outcomes, as it fosters a sense of agency and reciprocal responsibility.

“this interactive format offers a promising means of orienting human action toward desirable prosocial outcomes, as it fosters a sense of agency and reciprocal responsibility (Oliveira et al., 2021).”

• cites Oliveira et al., 2021Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Caution is warranted in interpreting intentions as proxies for actual behavior, given that the intention-behavior link may be shaped by situational, social, and contextual factors, particularly during adolescence.

“caution is therefore warranted in interpreting intentions as proxies for actual behavior, given that the intention-behavior link may be shaped by situational, social, and contextual factors, particularly during adolescence.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

This study helps to clarify the function of moral disengagement in the context of misleading news from a preventive standpoint.

“This study helps to clarify the function of moral disengagement in this context from a preventive standpoint.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Written informed consent was obtained from the legal guardians of all student participants between May and June 2024.

“Written informed consent was obtained from the legal guardians of all student participants between May and June 2024.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The novelty of this study lies in introducing the link between prosocial modeling and moral disengagement.

“the novelty of this study lies in introducing the link between prosocial modeling and moral disengagement”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The influence of the interaction between a prosocial model and a young user on moral disengagement has never been directly examined.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

This work extends and complements the existing literature on prosocial modeling, which has primarily focused on mere exposure to prosocial content, by emphasizing the added value of a conversational approach.

“this work extends and complements the existing literature on prosocial modeling, which has primarily focused on mere exposure to prosocial content (Greitemeyer, 2011), by emphasizing the added value of a conversational approach.”

• cites Greitemeyer, 2011Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.