Long-term effectiveness of inoculation against misinformation: Three longitudinal experiments.
Open accessAbstract
= 170), participants played either Bad News (inoculation group) or Tetris (gamified control group) and rated the reliability of news headlines that either used a misinformation technique or not. We found that participants rate fake news as significantly less reliable after the intervention. In Experiment 1, we assessed participants at regular intervals to explore the longevity of this effect and found that the inoculation effect remains stable for at least 3 months. In Experiment 2, we sought to replicate these findings without regular testing and found significant decay over a 2-month time period so that the long-term inoculation effect was no longer significant. In Experiment 3, we replicated the inoculation effect and investigated whether long-term effects could be due to item-response memorization or the fake-to-real ratio of items presented, but found that this is not the case. We discuss implications for inoculation theory and psychological research on misinformation. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).
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An intervention employing gamification-based logic, incentives and scores has the potential to foster resilience to dis/misinformation, which appears to persist over time.
“Such an intervention, which employs gamification-based logic, incentives and scores, has the potential to foster resilience to dis/misinformation, which appears to persist over time (Maertens et al., 2021).”
From Countering dis/misinformation sharing by hindering moral disengagement in adolescence: the role of prosocial conversational modeling (2026) · cites this paper as Maertens et al., 2021
The study was unable to study how long the inoculation effect remains significant.
“we were unable to study how long the inoculation effect remains significant (46, 47).”
From Psychological inoculation improves resilience against misinformation on social media (2022) · cites this paper as [46]
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Self-citationModirrousta-Galian, A., & Higham, P. A. (2023) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/xge0001395 · Cited by 144 · see citing works
Roozenbeek, J., Culloty, E., & Suiter, J. (2023) · European Psychologist · doi:10.1027/1016-9040/a000492 · Cited by 136 · see citing works
Self-citationRoozenbeek, J., Freeman, A. L. J., & van der Linden, S. (2021) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/09567976211024535 · Cited by 121 · see citing works
Self-citationA comparison of prebunking and debunking interventions for implied versus explicit misinformation
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Self-citationAre conspiracy theories harmless?
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“Serious games using similar techniques have already been shown to effectively reduce the impact of misinformation more generally (Maertens et al., 2020).”
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Technique-based inoculation against real-world misinformation
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Self-citationInoculating against COVID-19 vaccine misinformation
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How Can Psychological Science Help Counter the Spread of Fake News?
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Toolbox of Interventions Against Online MisinformationPreprint
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Self-citationExploring content of misinformation about HPV vaccine on twitter
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Countering misinformation through psychological inoculation
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Self-citationCurating Quality? How Twitter’s Timeline Algorithm Treats Different Types of News
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Psychological booster shots targeting memory increase long-term resistance against misinformation
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A Framework for Understanding the Effects of Strategic Communication Campaigns
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Managing Infodemics in the 21st Century
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Can Media Literacy Intervention Improve Fake News Credibility Assessment? A Meta-Analysis
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Self-citationIn generative AI we trust: can chatbots effectively verify political information?
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COVID-19 Vaccine Fact-Checking Posts on Facebook: Observational Study
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Refuting Spurious COVID-19 Treatment Claims Reduces Demand and Misinformation Sharing
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Self-citationGamified Inoculation Against Misinformation in India: A Randomized Control Trial
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Self-citationA prosocial fake news intervention with durable effects
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Communicating expert consensus increases personal support for COVID‐19 mitigation policies
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Self-citationProcessing of misinformation as motivational and cognitive biases
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Misinformation interventions decay rapidly without an immediate posttest
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Self-citationPractical recommendations to communicate with patients about health‐related conspiracy theories
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Mixed News about the Bad News Game
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Psychological Booster Shots Targeting Memory Increase Long-Term Resistance Against MisinformationPreprint
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Self-citation
- Authors
- Maertens, R., Roozenbeek, J., Basol, M., & van der Linden, S.
- Affiliations
- University of Cambridge (GB)
- Venue
- Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied
- Published
- 2021-03
- Volume
- 27
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 1-16
- ISSN
- 1076-898X (ISSN-L)
- 1939-2192
- OpenAlex
- W3089476379
- Semantic Scholar
- 6099649830c65c02b4008f5e57a18ebd8332a2ee
- Cited by
- 321
- References
- 97
- Citations by year
- 2026: 45 · 2025: 58 · 2024: 61 · 2023: 69 · 2022: 48 · 2021: 34 · 2020: 6
- FWCI
- 52.72
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- doi.org
- Locations
- Journal of Experimental Psychology Applied (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Apollo (University of Cambridge) (submittedVersion)
- Apollo
- Funders
- Cambridge Trust
- Economic and Social Research Council (ES/V011960/1, 2268886)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Misinformation and Its Impacts
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Deception detection and forensic psychology
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Keywords
- inoculation theory, misinformation, fake news, long-term effects, gamification, Tetris
- MeSH terms
- Communication, Humans, Deception, Reproducibility of Results
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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