Power System Concepts for the Lunar Outpost: A Review of the Power Generation, Energy Storage, Power Management and Distribution (PMAD) System Requirements and Potential Technologies for Development of the Lunar Outpost

DC systems are more efficient due to the absence of the skin effect, lower line losses, and no reactive power compensation, while allowing simpler design and construction.

“In general, DC systems are more efficient due to the absence of the skin effect, lower line losses, and no reactive power compensation, while allowing simpler design and construction [8], [11].”

Lithium-ion batteries have high specific energy (~150-200 Wh/kg) and energy density (more than 200 Wh/l) compared to other rechargeable batteries.

“Lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries have high specific energy ( ∼ 150 -200 Wh / kg) and energy density (more than 200 Wh / l) compared to other rechargeable batteries [9], [45], [46].”

In Phase 4, a reliable and autonomous system will be operational, enabling safe, permanent human presence upon the Moon.

“in ''Phase 4'' a reliable and autonomous system will be operational, enabling safe, permanent human presence upon the Moon [8].”

Polar regions are attractive for establishing a lunar base with less ESS requirements.

“Hence, polar regions are attractive for establishing a lunar base with less ESS requirements [8].”

Starting from Phase 3, the lunar establishment is planned to be self-sufficient for operation.

“Starting from ''Phase 3'', the lunar establishment is planned to be self-sufficient for operation”

Increasing the AC system frequency reduces the size of the capacitors and the power converters, but the transmission line mass increases as the skin effect and inductive reactance are directly proportional to the system frequency.

“Increasing the AC system frequency reduces the size of the capacitors and the power converters, but the transmission line mass increases as the skin effect and the inductive reactance is directly proportional to the system frequency [8].”

Li-ion batteries have higher specific energy (~100Wh/kg) and energy density (more than 200Wh/l) along with significant mass advantage and operational capability over a wide range of temperature compared to Ni-H2 batteries.

“Li-ion batteries have higher specific energy (∼100Wh/kg) and energy density (more than 200Wh/l) along with significant mass advantage and operational capability over a wide range of temperature compared to Ni-H 2 batteries [8], [59].”

Additional energy and specific infrastructures (like pumps) are required to transport the reactants to the surface.

“However, additional energy and specific infrastructures (like pumps) are required to transport the reactants to the surface [8].”

Due to the low conductivity of the lunar regolith, charged clouds of lunar dust move around the surface, necessitating additional protection relays and grounding wells for reliable operation.

“Also, due to the low conductivity of the lunar regolith, charged clouds of lunar dust move around the surface, necessitating additional protection relays and grounding wells for reliable operation [8].”

Studies have shown that increasing the system frequency does not significantly reduce the overall system mass.

“Thus, studies have shown that increasing the system frequency does not significantly reduce the overall system mass [8].”