Disparity Scaling and the Perception of Frontoparallel Surfaces

“…Hooge, & Backus, 2001; Battaglia, Jacobs, & Aslin, 2003; Buckley & Frisby, 1993; Frisby, Buckley, & Horsman, 1995; Jacobs, 1999; Körding & Wolpert, 2004; Rogers & Bradshaw, 1995; van Beers, Sittig, & Denier van der Gon, 1998; van Beers, Wolpert, & Haggard, 2002; Young, Landy, & Maloney , 1993).”

“…viewing distances, the visual system behaves as if distance is overestimated, and at far distances, as if distance is underestimated (Collett, Schwarz, & Sobel, 1991; Foley, 1980; Glennerster et al., 1996; Johnston, 1991; Johnston et al., 1993; Rogers & Bradshaw, 1995; Wallach & Zuckerman, 1963).”

“This linear weighting scheme suffices for understanding many phenomena in visual perceptio”

“R less reliable; cf Rogers and Bradshaw (1995)).”

“The existence of this invariant property may go some way to explain the different magnitudes of frontal plane scaling reported by Rogers and Bradshaw (1995a) and the depth scaling found in the present study (cf. Figs 6 and 8).”

“Recent psychophysical studies have shown that the contribution of vertical disparities can equal, or even exceed, the contribution of vergence angle when the field of view is larg”

“…Todd & Norman, 1991; Rogers & Bradshaw , 1993; Liter, Braunstein, & Hoffman, 1994; Todd, Tittle, & Norman, 1995; Tittle, Todd, Perotti, & Norman , 1995; Rogers & Bradshaw, 1995a; Bradshaw, Glennerster, & Rogers, 1996; Glennerster, Rogers, & Bradshaw, 1996; Norman, Todd, Perotti, & Tittle, 1996).”

“The stimuli were rear-projected using Electrohome EDP 58 video projectors onto screens of translucent Mylar mounted on the left and right of the subject and viewed dichoptically by front-silvered mirrors arranged in a Wheatstone configuration (see Rogers & Bradshaw, 1995).”

“Horizontal gradients of vertical-size disparity (vertical-shear disparity) can be used for judgements of the absolute distance and curvature of large frontal surfaces (Rogers and Bradshaw 1993, 1995).”

“2 By using a nulling task (i.e., by asking observers to adjust the pattern of horizontal disparities until the test surface appears to be flat and lie in a frontal plane), Rogers and Bradshaw (1995) found that observers indeed used vergence information for a veridical scaling of disparities.”

“…deriving surface slant from 1330horizontal and vertical size ratios (Backus & Banks, 1331 1999; Backus et al., 1999; Banks et al., 2002; Banks et al., 1332 2001; Kaneko & Howard, 1996, 1997b; Koenderink & 1333 van Doorn, 1976; Rogers & Bradshaw, 1993, 1995; 1334 Rogers & Cagenello, 1989).”

“Vertical disparity and extraretinal eye-position signals allow such compensation (eg Mayhew and Longuet-Higgins 1982; Porrill et al 1990; Rogers and Bradshaw 1995; Banks and Backus 1998; Erkelens and van Ee 1998; Backus et al 1999).”

“…the effects of field of view on the perception of planar surfaces from motion (Cornilleau-Pérès et al., 2002) and binocular disparity (Bradshaw, Glennerster, & Rogers, 1996; Rogers & Bradshaw, 1995). screen using an LCD projector, and they had horizontal and vertical extents of 121.9 cm.”

“Horizontal disparity has to be scaled for distance, which requires knowledge of distance provided by other sources of information [2].”

“A depth scaling might take place due to the vertical component of the probe’s disparity (Rogers & Bradshaw, 1995).”

“…evidence that an extraretinal torsion signal exists, ˆ 3 but the possibility should be entertained because it has been shown that extraretinal signals of horizontal version and horizontal vergence are used in interpreting horizontal disparity patterns (Backus, et al, 1999; Rogers & Bradshaw, 1995).”

“This may explain why vertical disparities appear to influence perception at a more global level, being integrated across the whole image, whereas horizontal disparities appear to act more locally, contributing to a local depth map (Rogers & Bradshaw, 1993, 1995; Stenton, Frisby, & Mayhew, 1984).”

“The model provides a natural explanation of why vertical disparity is pooled across relatively large areas of the visual field (Adams et al., 1996; Kaneko & Howard, 1996; Rogers & Bradshaw, 1995; Stenton et al., 1984).”

“the frontal plane (Rogers & Bradshaw, 1995).”

“The fact that retinal size and retinal disparityhave to be scaled with distancebefore they can be interpretedas size and depth raises the question whether size-scaling and depth-scalinguse a common estimate of distance (Colett et al., 1991; Rogers & Bradshaw, 1995a).”

“By accommodation, we mean the Some previous studies of stereoscopic depth constancy have manipulated vergence and vertical-disparity signals and most showed that both signals are in fact used [21,22,24–26].”

“…(Foley, 1980; Erkelens & Collewijn, 1985a, b; Regan et al., 1986; Collett et al., 1991; Cumming et al., 1991; Logvinenko & Belopolskii (1994); Rogers & Bradshaw, 1995 and Backus et al., 1996) show that in situations where (conflicting) eye muscle information is available changing eye posture…”

“Similarly it has been shown that to judge that a disparity-defined surface is fronto-parallel with respect to the observer, the visual system need only gauge that the horizontal size ratio of the surface is equal to the square of its vertical size ratio (Rogers & Bradshaw, 1995).”

“It is clear from recent psychophysical studies that all these signals are combined in stereoscopic depth perception (Rogers & Bradshaw, 1995; Bradshaw, Glennerster & Rogers, 1996; Backus, Banks, van Ee & Crowell, 1999).”

“[81] B.”

“Keywords: Stereopsis; Binocular vision; Depth; Size; Shape; Human”

“, 1991 ; Rogers and Bradshaw , 1993 , 1995 ; Bradshaw et al .”

“Because the vertical subtense was small, vertical disparities were not a reliable cue to distance (Rogers & Bradshaw, 1995; Backus et al., 1999).”

“Estimates of the magnitude of depth scaling accomplished by the visual system range from 30% to 100% (e.g. Johnston, 1991; Cumming et al., 1991; Rogers and Bradshaw, 1993, 1995; Bradshaw and Rogers, 1996).”

“The input signals of this system are local horizontal disparities, global vertical disparity and eye position signals ( Rogers & Bradshaw, 1995; Bradshaw, Glennerster, & Rogers, 1996; Erkelens & van Ee, 1998; Backus, Banks, van Ee, & Crowell, 1999).”

“For example, changes in vergence can be used to partially scale disparity for perceived curvature (Rogers & Bradshaw, 1995; Watt, Akeley, Ernst, & Banks, 2005).”

“The curvature evoked by vertical quadratic mix can be nulled by horizontal quadratic scale (Rogers and Bradshaw, 1995; Adams, Frisby, Buckley, Gårding, Hippisley-Cox, & Porrill, 1996).”

“…cues and motion parallax are more informative for relative than absolute depth perception, vertical disparity can provide a cue to absolute distance (Brenner et al., 2001; Rogers & Bradshaw, 1993) for large surfaces (>20 degrees of visual angle; Bradshaw et al., 1996; Rogers & Bradshaw, 1995).”

“…we observed no effect of vertical disparity manipulation with our medium-size displays (while we and others have observed strong effects on perceived slant and curvature; Backus & Banks, 1999; Rogers & Bradshaw, 1995) makes it unlikely that we would observe an effect with an even larger display.”

“Rogers and Bradshaw (1995) found that to yield the perception of an apparent fronto-parallel surface, the surface needs to be more curved as the viewing distance decreased.”

“In other experiments, the depth effects induced by vertical disparity were nulled by horizontal disparity (Stenton, Frisby and Mayhew, 1984; Rogers and Bradshaw, 1995; Adams, et al., 1996; Backus, et al., 1999).”

“From several studies it is known that the eyes posture, in particular vergence and version, can be used for depth perception in situations where other cues are less informative (Backus et al., 1999; Rogers & Bradshaw, 1995).”

“…of f, d, dα, and dθ can be created with a translating stimulus and stationary observer. small value of the motion/pursuit ratio in our experiments, the exact geometric law (1) can be replaced with the simple approximate geometric relationship that says the motion/pursuit ratio (M/PR) approximates…”

“Rogers & Bradshaw (1995) and van Ee & Erkelens (1996) have also found that binocular slant perception is generally poor without a visible reference plane, even when slant is induced by other deformations of 1D and 2D first-order structure.”

“Unless the content fills a wide area of the visual field vertical disparity signals are very weak (Backus, Banks, van Ee, & Crowell, 1999; Rogers & Bradshaw, 1995).”

“[12] argue that this is because vertical disparities are maximised in the periphery.”

“One possible account of this is that since vergence eye position is used in the frontal plane constancy process (Helmholtz, 1910; Rogers & Bradshaw, 1995), the aftereffect is a result of vergence adaptation (e.g. Ebenholtz & Wolfson, 1975).”

“However, optimal scaling is typically only seen when both sources of information are available (Ritter, 1977; Rogers & Bradshaw, 1995; Swenson, 1932; Wallach & Zuckerman, 1963).”

“…analysis deliberately neglect (being proper of planar surface subtending large viewing angles) like, the vertical gradient of disparity (absent under orthographic projections) and extra-retinal signals as those deriving from sensed eyes’ position (Backus & Banks, 1999; Rogers & Bradshaw, 1995).”

“Signals about eye posture and several disparity types make this compensation possible (eg Mayhew and Longuet-Higgins 1982; Porrill et al 1990; Rogers and Bradshaw 1995; Banks and Backus 1998; Erkelens and van Ee 1998; Backus et al 1999).”

“Empirically, we have shown that both sources of information are effective (Bradshaw, Glennerster, & Rogers, 1996; Rogers & Bradshaw, 1995).”

“If monkeys make use of vertical disparities to estimate viewing distance, then altering the vertical disparity field to simulate a distance other than 57 cm should cause the monkey to incorrectly perceive the curvature of the random-dot surface (Rogers and Bradshaw 1995).”

“Of possible relevance here is Rogers and Bradshaw (1995) who found that for an FPP task oculomotor cues dominated vertical disparity cues for small fields of view.”

“…Domini, Caudek, & Tassinari, 2006; Glennerster, Rogers, & Bradshaw, 1996; Johnston, 1991; Liter, Braunstein, & Hoffman, 1994; O’Kane & Hibbard, 2010; Rogers & Bradshaw, 1993, 1995; Scarfe & Hibbard, 2006, 2011; Tassinari, Domini, & Caudek, 2008; Tittle et al., 1995; Todd & Bressan, 1990; Todd &…”

“But if a cognitive association between accentuated stereo-depth and reduced distance explains the miniaturisation in Fig.11 and Fig.12, then it provides an alternative explanation for the results in the result in Appendix A of Rogers & Bradshaw (1995).”

“…may not contribute to our sensitivity to ordinal depth judgements when other cues are available, it does play an important role in calibrating our perception of depth from binocular disparity (Bradshaw, Glennerster, & Rogers, 1996; Mon-Williams, Tresilian, & Roberts, 2000; Rogers & Bradshaw, 1995).”

“…evidence that vertical disparities are used to interpret horizontal disparities produced by slanted surfaces (Stenton, Frisby, & Mayhew, 1984; Rogers & Bradshaw, 1993, 1995; Kaneko & Howard, 1996; Backus et al., 1999; Frisby et al., 1999; Gårding et al., 1995; Banks, Hooge, & Backus, 2001;…”

“curvature ( Rogers and Bradshaw, 1995 ), or size (Brenner et. al, 2001), but not azimuth”