Distribution and density estimates for urban foxes ( Vulpes vulpes ) in Melbourne: implications for rabies control

“…(Macdonald & Newdick, 1982; Harris & Rayner, 1986b; Wilkinson & Smith, 2001); this is particularly true for countries where this species is introduced, where there is a noted spread into a variety of habitats, including cities (Adkins & Stott, 1998; Marks & Bloomfield 1999b and references therein).”

“…of other countries such as Switzerland, Poland, Australia, and Japan has become the subject of recent investigations on urban carnivore distributions, zoonoses, and human–carnivore interactions (Gloor et al. 2001; Jakubiec-Benroth and Jakubiec 2001; Marks and Bloomfield 1999; Tsukada et al. 2000).”

“…public and animal welfare organizations, local authorities operatives and police wildlife liaison officers have been widely used in urban areas to estimate fox distribution, density and changes in abundance (Harris, 1981; Marks & Bloomfield, 1999; Gloor et al ., 2001; Wilkinson & Smith, 2001).”

“The red fox (Vulpes vulpes) is widely distributed throughout towns and cities in southern Britain (Harris and Rayner 1986; Wilkinson and Smith 2001) and is becoming increasingly common in urban areas in other countries (Willingham et al. 1996; Adkins and Stott 1998; Marks and Bloomfield 1999; Hofer et al. 2000; Tsukad…”

“Studies have shown that contacts among territorial neighbours increase for rabid foxes and that fox group size can increase with density (Andral et al., 1982; Harris and Smith, 1987; Macdonald et al., 1999; Marks and Bloomfield, 1999; Baker et al., 2000).”

“The effects of these species upon native wildlife in Brisbane have not been quantified but it is widely known that both cats and foxes prey upon native species, including a variety of birds and small-medium sized mammals, such as northern brown bandicoots and brushtail possums (Fitzgerald 1988, 1990; Proulx 1988; Brow…”

“Foxes and possums, particularly brush-tailed possums (Trichosurus vulpecula), are widespread over much of Australia, are often found within urban areas (Marks and Bloomfield, 1999; Eymann et al., 2006) and have close associations with domestic animals and human habitation.”

“The upper limit of 1600 foxes was derived by considering the size of Phillip Island (100 km2) and the maximum fox density estimated in Australia (16 foxes km−2) (Saunders et al., 1995; Marks & Bloomfield, 1999).”

“They occur at high densities in several cities (Bateman & Fleming 2012) and are considered urban pests due their potential role in transmission of zoonotic disease (Marks & Bloomfield 1999a,b).”

“We compared the behaviour of the invasive red fox (Vulpes vulpes) at eight urban and eight peri-urban areas of Sydney, Australia.”

“Supposing there is an increment of an average of 4–5 pups/territory (Harris 1979, 1981; Marks and Bloomfield 1999; Stiebling 2000), we can assume that the density in summer rises to approximately 3–5 foxes/km(2) (Funk and Gürtler 1990; Stiebling 2000; Stubbe 1986) in agricultural areas.”

“For example, there are up to sixteen individuals per km(2) in Melbourne (Marks and Bloomfield 1999), compared to just 0.”

“Globally, the red fox is the most widespread and successful urban carnivore, having colo- nized cities in Europe, Australia, USA, Canada and Japan [12, 13, 14].”

“Fox densities in urban areas have been recorded as high as five fox families per square kilometer in Britain (Stephen Harris 1981; Harris and Rayner 1986) and 3–16 individuals per square kilometer in Switzerland and Australia (Marks and Bloomfield 1999; Gloor 2002).”

“Photo credit: © L. Hamelbeck‐Galle/stadtwildtiere.at Beaumont, 1991; Harris, 1981; Marks & Bloomfield, 1999).”

“Red fox family-group densities recorded elsewhere have been 0.6 km–2 in rural central Victoria (Coman et al. 1991) and 0.5–3.6 km–2 in urban Melbourne (Trewhella et al. 1988; Marks and Bloomfield 1999).”

“For example, in Melbourne (Victoria, Australia), up to 16 individuals·km− 2 have been recorded (Marks and Bloomfield 1999), which is 2–5 times the densities recorded for rural areas of Victoria (Coman et al.”

“…on 19 Oct 2020 Terms of Use: https://bioone.org/terms-of-use An average annual increment of 4-5 pups/fox territory (Harris 1979, 1981, Marks & Bloomfield 1999) would mean that the summer density rises to 2-7 foxes/km2 (Stubbe 1986, Funk & Gürtler 1990, Stiebling 2000) in…”

“…2 urban reserves compared to a baiting density of 5 baits per 100 ha currently used for fox control across reserves in rural Western Australia (Armstrong 2004); this difference was cognizant of higher densities of foxes known to inhabit urban areas (Marks and Bloomfield 1999, Marlow et al. 2000).”

“In the 1870s, red foxes were also imported into Australia for recreational hunting (Rolls, 1977; Mulley and Starr, 1984; Marks and Bloomfield, 1999).”

“1995) including many major urban centres (Marks and Bloomfield 1999a).”

“Higher density also has been associated with higher transmission rates of rabies in urban red foxes in Australia (Marks and Bloomfield 1999) and Canada (Rosatte et al.”

“Humans and dogs were attacked by I. holocyclus in Melbourne, Australia (Beveridge, 1991).”

“…owing to its plasticity to inhabit natural and built ‐ up areas and use a variety of food in different landscapes (Harris and Rayner 1986, Marks and Bloomfield 1999, Gosselink et b The percentage of the period between dusk (2041) and dawn (0515) that an animal is active. urbanization…”

“In urban Melbourne, V. vulpes densities have been reported as being between 3 and 16 animals per square kilometre (Marks and Bloomfield 1999), and in temperate Victorian grazing areas V. vulpes densities have been estimated at nearly four animals per square kilometre (Coman et al. 1991).”

“For example, the red fox ( Vulpes vulpes ) has adapted to cities globally, with densities up to four times greater in cities than in adjacent rural areas (Marks & Bloomfield, 1999), and human foot-print is the biggest driver of fox home range size on a global scale (Main et al., 2020).”

“In contrast with the red fox, which can be described as habitat-generalist or opportunist species (Harris 1981 ; Marks & Bloomfield 1999 ), and compared with the diet of other medium-sized Palaearctic carnivores, the genet is intermediate between typical generalists and specialists (Virgos et al.”

“2016), leading mesopredators like jackals to take to human habitations and even abandoned or less used built infrastructure to bring up their offspring (Marks and Bloomfield 1999).”

“In addition, foxes are not just a rural problem, with increasing numbers being found in urban and semi-urban areas (Marks & Bloomfield 1999, O’Keeffe & Walton 2001, Olsen et al. 2005, Marks & Bloomfield 2006, White et al. 2006).”

“Urban fox densities typically range from 2 to 16 foxes per square kilometre (Heydon et al. 2000; Marks and Bloomfield 1999), but have been as high as 37 foxes per square kilometre in Bristol, UK (Baker et al. 2001).”

“The simulation starts with a set number of foxes ( n =16), which represents a realistic density of foxes per km 2 in cities, with one infected fox at the (I – infected stage) beginning of the simulation and all other foxes at the susceptible stage (S) (Marks & Bloomfield 1999).”

“Thus, urban environments may 94 favour increased conspecific tolerance and social behaviours in foxes (9, 24-26).”

“…of foxes to human-modified landscapes has enabled their widespread colonisation of Australian cities, including Melbourne, where foxes thrive by exploiting anthropogenic resources such as food, water and shelter (Marks and Bloomfield, 1999; Bateman and Fleming, 2012; Campbell et al., 2020).”