Red fox viromes in urban and rural landscapes

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Red foxes are broadly distributed across natural and forested landscapes as well as highly urbanised, human-dominated areas.

“They are broadly distributed across natural and forested landscapes as well as highly urbanised, human dominated areas (Saunders, Gentle, and Dickman 2010; Bateman and Fleming 2012).”

• cites Saunders, Gentle, and Dickman 2010 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Bateman and Fleming 2012 sourcePartly supported

  The “History of carnivore urban adaptation” section describes red foxes as occupying habitats from arctic tundra and deserts to metropolitan centres, supporting their broad distribution across natural and highly urbanised areas. The passages in our copy do not specifically establish their distribution in forested landscapes. (LLM, conf=0.83)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

Urban living and access to anthropogenic food resources influence fox ecology.

“Urban living and access to anthropogenic food resources also influence fox ecology.”

• cites Contesse et al. 2004 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Bateman and Fleming 2012 sourceSupported
• cites Stepkovitch 2017Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Urban environments may enhance conspecific tolerance and social behaviours in foxes.

“Thus, urban environments may enhance conspecific tolerance and social behaviours in foxes (Macdonald 1979, 1983; Marks and Bloomfield 1999; Dorning and Harris 2019).”

• cites Macdonald 1979, 1983Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Marks and Bloomfield 1999 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Dorning and Harris 2019 sourcePartly supported

  The Discussion reports social interactions among foxes at provisioned food patches in an urban area and concludes that patchy resources facilitated sociality. It does not establish that urban environments, rather than patchy resources, enhance tolerance or social behaviour; it notes that similar interactions may occur in other habitats. No page number is available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.82)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Domestic mammals tend to hold central positions in mammal viral transmission networks.

“Domestic mammals tend to hold central positions in mammal viral transmission networks (Wells et al. 2020).”

• cites Wells et al. 2020 sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The prevalence of parvovirus increases with proximity to urban areas in grey foxes in the USA.

“For example, the prevalence of parvovirus increases with proximity to urban areas in grey foxes (Urocyon cinereoargenteus) in the USA (Riley, Foley, and Chomel 2004), and dogs in urban areas in Brazil harbour more tick-borne pathogens than rural dogs (Vieira et al. 2013).”

• cites Riley, Foley, and Chomel 2004 sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Confirmed zoonotic cases of hepatitis E include transmission to humans from domestic pigs, cats, and wild rodents.

“Confirmed zoonotic cases include transmission to humans from domestic pigs, cats, and wild rodents (Meng 2010; Dremsek et al. 2012).”

• cites Meng 2010 sourcePartly supported

  Section 4.3 reports human hepatitis E cases linked to pig products and reported transmission from a pet pig and a pet cat to their owners. It says only that rodents may play a role in HEV transmission; it does not report a confirmed rodent-to-human case. (LLM, conf=0.91)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Dremsek et al. 2012 sourcePartly supported

  The paper’s summary links human hepatitis E cases to zoonotic transmission from domestic pigs, supporting that part of the claim. It does not mention cats as a source, and its rat-HEV findings are preliminary: it says the role of rat HEV in human disease still needs assessment, not that rodent-to-human transmission is confirmed. The indexed passages have no page labels. (LLM, conf=0.90)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Picobirnaviruses are found in humans and other mammals and are thought to be linked with gastroenteritis, but their role in disease remains unclear.

“Picobirnaviruses are found in humans and other mammals and are thought to be linked with gastroenteritis, however their role in disease remains unclear (Malik et al. 2014; Conceição-Neto et al. 2016).”

• cites Malik et al. 2014 sourceSupported
• cites Conceição-Neto et al. 2016 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Some human astroviruses are more closely related to those in animals than to each other, suggesting that these viruses periodically emerge from zoonotic origins.

“Some human astroviruses are more closely related to those in animals than to each other, suggesting that these viruses periodically emerge from zoonotic origins (Kapoor et al. 2009).”

• cites Kapoor et al. 2009 sourceSupported

May combine two claims.

RNA viruses are in general characterised by lower host specificity than DNA viruses, reflecting an increased occurrence of cross-species transmission.

“Although this may in part be due to the reliance on transcript-based viral detection, RNA viruses are in general characterised by lower host specificity than DNA viruses, reflecting an increased occurrence of cross-species transmission (Geoghegan, Duchêne, and Holmes 2017; Wells et al. 2020).”

• cites Geoghegan, Duchêne, and Holmes 2017 sourceSupported
• cites Wells et al. 2020 sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Eukaryotic parasites are already known to infect human hosts following the wildlife-domestic pet-human transmission network.

“Indeed, eukaryotic parasites are already known to infect human hosts following the wildlife–domestic pet–human transmission network (Wells et al. 2018).”

• cites Wells et al. 2018 sourcePartly supported

  The Roles of domestic animal hosts section (p. 23) reports that humans and dogs share many helminth parasites with wildlife, supporting the claim that these parasites infect human hosts at this interface. But the paper does not establish transmission along a wildlife–pet–human route: it says its analysis cannot determine the direction of host shifts (p. 24). (LLM, conf=0.88)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

This is the second time that RHDV2 has been found in non-rabbit hosts.

“This is the second time that RHDV2 has been found in non-rabbit hosts (Chong et al. 2019), presumably through rabbit consumption in this case.”

• cites Chong et al. 2019 sourcePartly supported

  The Results section reports PCR-confirmed RHDV2 in Tasmanian devil fecal samples, supporting detection in a non-rabbit animal. Our copy does not establish that the citing paper’s finding was the second such detection. The Discussion also cautions that the virus may have come from the devils’ diet rather than replicating in them; page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

There is evidence that picobirnaviruses may actually be bacteriophage rather than eukaryote-associated viruses.

“There is, however, evidence that picobirnaviruses may actually be bacteriophage rather than eukaryote-associated viruses (Krishnamurthy and Wang 2018), such that the virology of these viruses is currently unclear.”

• cites Krishnamurthy and Wang 2018 sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

RHDV2 began circulating in Australia in 2015.

“A novel variant of the disease, RHDV2, began circulating in Australia in 2015 and is presumed to be an incursion from Europe where it first emerged in 2010 (Hall et al. 2015).”

• cites Hall et al. 2015 sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Dogs in urban areas in Brazil harbour more tick-borne pathogens than rural dogs.

“For example, the prevalence of parvovirus increases with proximity to urban areas in grey foxes (Urocyon cinereoargenteus) in the USA (Riley, Foley, and Chomel 2004), and dogs in urban areas in Brazil harbour more tick-borne pathogens than rural dogs (Vieira et al. 2013).”

• cites Vieira et al. 2013 sourcePartly supported

  The Discussion reports that 91.2% of sampled urban dogs were seropositive for at least one tick-borne disease agent and were 13.7 times more likely to be seropositive than rural dogs. But the study sampled dogs in one region of Paraná and measured antibodies, so it does not establish that urban dogs across Brazil harbour more pathogens. (LLM, conf=0.87)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Kobuviruses have been isolated from dogs and other mammals with diarrhoeic symptoms.

“Whilst we cannot assume that these viruses cause disease, kobuviruses have been isolated from dogs and other mammals with diarrhoeic symptoms (Reuter, Boros, and Pankovics 2011; Di Martino et al. 2013).”

• cites Reuter, Boros, and Pankovics 2011 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Di Martino et al. 2013 sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Astroviruses have a broad host range and are frequently detected in the faeces of mammals, birds, and humans with gastroenteritis.

“Astroviruses have a broad host range (Donato and Vijaykrishna 2017) and are frequently detected in the faeces of mammals, birds, and humans with gastroenteritis (Finkbeiner et al. 2009; De Benedictis et al. 2011).”

• cites Donato and Vijaykrishna 2017 sourceSupported
• cites Finkbeiner et al. 2009 sourcePartly supported

  The cited paper supports detection in humans: its Abstract reports astrovirus VA1 in fecal samples from a gastroenteritis outbreak and describes human astroviruses associated with diarrhea. It also notes that astroviruses infect a variety of species, but does not establish that they are frequently detected in the feces of mammals and birds with gastroenteritis. The sentence attributes the separate broad-host-range clause to Donato and Vijaykrishna, not to this paper. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites De Benedictis et al. 2011 sourcePartly supported

  The Introduction describes astroviruses in many mammalian and avian hosts, and the avian astrovirus section reports frequent detection in turkeys with diarrhea. But the Abstract and Conclusions say the association with enteric disease is not well documented in many animal hosts. The source therefore does not support the unqualified claim that astroviruses are frequently detected in the faeces of mammals, birds, and humans with gastroenteritis. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Hepeviridae cause hepatitis E in mammals and have been isolated from various domestic and wild animals including foxes in the Netherlands.

“We discovered viral transcripts with some sequence similarity to the Hepeviridae that cause hepatitis E in mammals, which has already been isolated from various domestic and wild animals including foxes in the Netherlands (Meng 2010; Bodewes et al. 2013).”

• cites Meng 2010 sourcePartly supported

  The Introduction and §4.3 describe HEV in humans and several domestic and wild animals. Section 4.3 distinguishes confirmed viral recovery from antibody detection, however, and the paper does not report isolation from foxes in the Netherlands. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Bodewes et al. 2013 sourcePartly supported

  The paper reports hepatitis E viruses in domestic animals and identifies hepevirus sequences in feces from red foxes collected in the Netherlands (Abstract and study description; page not supplied). It did not isolate a virus or establish that the foxes were infected: it says the sequences might have come from their prey. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Sapeloviruses cause encephalitis in domestic pigs.

“Additionally, the fox picornaviruses found here are closely related to sapeloviruses that cause encephalitis in domestic pigs (Lan et al. 2011; Schock et al. 2014; Arruda et al. 2017).”

• cites Lan et al. 2011 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Schock et al. 2014 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Arruda et al. 2017 sourcePartly supported

  The Introduction reports that porcine sapelovirus was detected in pigs with neurologic disease and severe polioencephalomyelitis. The Diagnostics section says the virus was associated with the lesions but explicitly notes that disease causation has not been established. Thus the paper supports an association in domestic pigs, not the unqualified claim that sapeloviruses cause encephalitis. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

RHDV2 is presumed to be an incursion from Europe, where it first emerged in 2010.

“A novel variant of the disease, RHDV2, began circulating in Australia in 2015 and is presumed to be an incursion from Europe where it first emerged in 2010 (Hall et al. 2015).”

• cites Hall et al. 2015 sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A combination of biological and ecological differences, such as hormones, diet, and environment, could contribute to variation in male and female viromes.

“Alternatively, a combination of biological and ecological differences, such as hormones, diet, and environment, could contribute to variation in male and female viromes (Vemuri et al. 2019).”

• cites Vemuri et al. 2019 sourcePartly supported

  The sections on sex hormones in rodent models and on diet, GIT transit and adiposity (pages not provided) link hormones and diet to sex differences in gut microbiota. But the review says discussion of interactions involving viruses is beyond its scope; it does not establish that hormones, diet and environment contribute to variation in male and female viromes. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Australian lace monitors consuming human refuse experience improved body condition and reduced blood parasite infection compared to those that do not subsist on anthropogenic food waste.

“Australian lace monitors (Varanus varius) consuming human refuse experience improved body condition and reduced blood parasite infection compared to those that do not subsist on anthropogenic food waste (Jessop et al. 2012).”

• cites Jessop et al. 2012 sourceSupported

May combine two claims.

Liver samples were dominated by eukaryotic transcripts (92.90-99.43%), largely comprising fox RNA.

“BLAST analyses revealed that the faecal samples were dominated by bacteria (51.17–84.61%), whilst the liver samples were dominated by eukaryotic transcripts (92.90–99.43%), largely comprising fox RNA.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Meta-transcriptomic sequencing of nine representative pooled samples resulted in 44-57 million paired reads per pool (593,406,706 reads in total).

“Meta-transcriptomic sequencing of nine representative pooled samples resulted in 44–57 million paired reads per pool (593,406,706 reads in total).”

May combine two claims.

Ectoparasites differed substantially to liver and faecal samples with 50.97 per cent of reads classed as 'unmatched'.

“The ectoparasites (fleas and ticks) differed substantially to the liver and faecal samples with 50.97 per cent of reads classed as ‘unmatched’ meaning they did not share sequence similarity to any known sequence.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Vixey virus had a relative abundance of 0.007 per cent.

“The longer sequence, tentatively named vixey virus, shared highest amino acid identity with canine kobuvirus from a domestic dog (97.65%) and had a relative abundance of 0.007 per cent (Table 2).”

May combine two claims.

Overall, twenty-one viral families were identified in transcripts from urban foxes and nineteen from rural foxes.

“Overall, twenty-one viral families were identified in transcripts from urban foxes and nineteen from rural foxes.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Charmer virus had a relative abundance of 0.0001 per cent.

“The sequence, tentatively named charmer virus, shared an 80.27 per cent amino acid identity with a picobirnavirus found in wolves and had a relative abundance of 0.0001 per cent (Table 2).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Vulpix virus had a relative abundance of 0.046 per cent.

“Notably, the sequence shared a 96.11 per cent amino acid identity with feline astrovirus D1 and had a relative abundance of 0.046 per cent (Table 2).”

May combine two claims.

Phylogenetic analysis of the RdRp encoding region placed swiper virus in proximity to both house mouse hepevirus and elicom virus-1, with these viruses forming a distinct monophyletic group.

“Whilst its closest genetic relative is not from a vertebrate host suggesting it may be a diet-associated contaminant, phylogenetic analysis of the RdRp encoding region placed this hepevirus in proximity to both house mouse hepevirus and elicom virus-1, with these viruses forming a distinct monophyletic group (Fig. 4).”

May combine two claims.

A much larger percentage of the viral transcripts identified were vertebrate associated in rural foxes (male: 98.23% and female: 97.84%) compared to urban foxes (male: 2.41% and female: 0.39%), although this percentage was higher in males in both groups.

“A much larger percentage of the viral transcripts identified were vertebrate associated in rural foxes (male: 98.23% and female: 97.84%) compared to urban foxes (male: 2.41% and female: 0.39%), although this percentage was higher in males in both groups.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Wilde virus-3 had a relative abundance of 0.0004 per cent.

“Three sequences, tentatively named wilde virus-1, 2, and 3, all shared between 73 and 89 per cent amino acid identity with canine picornavirus and had relative abundances of 5.66 per cent, 0.00058 per cent, and 0.0004 per cent, respectively (Table 2).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Wilde virus-2 had a relative abundance of 0.00058 per cent.

“Three sequences, tentatively named wilde virus-1, 2, and 3, all shared between 73 and 89 per cent amino acid identity with canine picornavirus and had relative abundances of 5.66 per cent, 0.00058 per cent, and 0.0004 per cent, respectively (Table 2).”

May combine two claims.

Tod virus-1 and tod virus-2 both shared 98 per cent amino acid identity with canine picodicistrovirus.

“Two of the sequences, tentatively named tod virus-1 and tod virus-2, both shared 98 per cent amino acid identity with canine picodicistrovirus (Table 2).”

May combine two claims.

Foxes interact with human refuse, consume food scraps, eat from pet bowls and wildlife feeding stations, and defaecate nearby, increasing the potential for pathogen transfer.

“Foxes interact with human refuse, including compost and rubbish bins, and consume food scraps from surfaces such as outdoor barbeques and furniture, eat from pet bowls and wildlife feeding stations, and defaecate nearby, increasing the potential for pathogen transfer (Contesse et al. 2004).”

• cites Contesse et al. 2004 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The remainder of viral reads comprised mostly invertebrate-, plant-, and fungi-associated virus transcripts, which were most likely acquired from the foxes' diet.

“The remainder comprised mostly invertebrate-, plant-, and fungi-associated virus transcripts, which were most likely acquired from the foxes’ diet.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Foxes killed by poison baits were excluded.

“Foxes killed by poison baits were excluded.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Samples were taken as soon as possible after death to minimise degradation of RNA.

“To minimise degradation of RNA, samples were taken as soon as possible after death (03:19:00 ± 02:59:00 h post-mortem, n = 27).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

One carcase had been frozen for approximately 1 week and one carcase had been dead for an unknown amount of time.

“One carcase had been frozen for approximately 1 week and one carcase had been dead for an unknown amount of time.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Urban foxes live at higher densities than rural counterparts.

“Urban areas support surprisingly high densities of foxes. For example, there are up to sixteen individuals per km2 in Melbourne (Marks and Bloomfield 1999), compared to just 0.2 individuals per km2 in rural areas (Saunders, Gentle, and Dickman 2010).”

• cites Marks and Bloomfield 1999 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Saunders, Gentle, and Dickman 2010 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Swiper virus's closest genetic relative is not from a vertebrate host, suggesting it may be a diet-associated contaminant.

“Whilst its closest genetic relative is not from a vertebrate host suggesting it may be a diet-associated contaminant, phylogenetic analysis of the RdRp encoding region placed this hepevirus in proximity to both house mouse hepevirus and elicom virus-1, with these viruses forming a distinct monophyletic group (Fig. 4).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The divergent phylogenetic position of the hepevirus detected here could mean that it results from dietary consumption.

“Hence, although we have classed the virus as vertebrate associated, its divergent phylogenetic position could in fact mean that it results from dietary consumption.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Due to the small sample size, differences may be due to some individual animals contributing more to overall abundance or diversity in their respective pool than others.

“However, due to the small sample size, differences may be due to some individual animals contributing more to overall abundance or diversity in their respective pool than others.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Whilst virome composition was compared among a relatively small number of samples, this is balanced by the fact that each sample comprises the viromes of multiple individual foxes (n = 3-13 foxes per pool; Table 1).

“Whilst virome composition was compared among a relatively small number of samples, this is balanced by the fact that each sample comprises the viromes of multiple individual foxes (n = 3–13 foxes per pool; Table 1).”

May combine two claims.

The RHDV2 virus in fox faeces is simply a gut contaminant with no active RHDV2 replication in the fox host.

“It is likely, then, that Sydney foxes consume diseased rabbits and the virus is simply a gut contaminant with no active RHDV2 replication in the fox host.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

RHDV2 has become the dominant strain circulating in Australia's wild rabbits.

“RHDV2 has become the dominant strain circulating in Australia’s wild rabbits (Mahar et al. 2018).”

• cites Mahar et al. 2018 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The prevalence of West Nile virus in wild birds in the USA increases with proximity to urban areas and human population density.

“In addition, the prevalence of West Nile virus in wild birds in the USA increases with proximity to urban areas and human population density (Gibbs et al. 2006).”

• cites Gibbs et al. 2006 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Some virus transcripts found here may be the result of contamination by reagents.

“In this context, it is important to note that some virus transcripts found here may be the result of contamination by reagents.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The RHDV2 in the fox samples was presumably acquired through rabbit consumption.

“This is the second time that RHDV2 has been found in non-rabbit hosts (Chong et al. 2019), presumably through rabbit consumption in this case.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Antibodies against RHDV have been detected in red foxes in Germany, with no evidence of illness or viral replication.

“Although it is worth noting that antibodies against RHDV have been detected in red foxes in Germany, there was no evidence of illness or viral replication (Frölich, Klima, and Dedek 1998).”

• cites Frölich, Klima, and Dedek 1998 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Males may be more likely to be involved in aggressive encounters with conspecifics than females.

“However, our understanding of red fox sociality in Australia is limited (Newsome 1995) and males may be more likely to be involved in aggressive encounters with conspecifics than females (White and Harris 1994).”

• cites White and Harris 1994 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Differences in overall abundance and diversity of viruses present in foxes may be a reflection of differences in diet and environment.

“Whilst differences in overall abundance and diversity of viruses present in foxes may be a reflection of differences in diet and environment, we found rural foxes to have a much higher abundance of vertebrate-associated viruses than urban.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Multiple co-occurring factors could simultaneously affect viral infection in Sydney's foxes.

“Multiple co-occurring factors could simultaneously affect viral infection in Sydney’s foxes.”

May combine two claims.

Foxes in urban Sydney grow larger and are heavier than foxes in rural areas.

“Foxes in urban Sydney grow larger and are heavier than foxes in rural areas (Stepkovitch et al. 2019), and there may be an advantage to consuming anthropogenic food sources for overall condition and pathogen resistance.”

• cites Stepkovitch et al. 2019 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The difference in viromes between male and female foxes may indicate different ecologies and behaviours in male and female foxes.

“This difference in viromes may indicate different ecologies and behaviours in male and female foxes.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Greater sociality in females may increase viral transmission opportunities.

“Whilst other studies looking at sex differences and immunity suggest that females typically display stronger immune responses and reduced pathogen load compared to males (Klein 2000), greater sociality in females (Macdonald 1979, 1983) may increase viral transmission opportunities.”

• cites Macdonald 1979 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Macdonald 1983 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Kit foxes in urban areas in California show less nutritional stress, increased body condition, and improved immune function compared to foxes in a nearby nature reserve.

“Kit foxes (Vulpes macrotis) in urban areas in California show less nutritional stress, increased body condition, and improved immune function when compared to foxes in a nearby nature reserve (Cypher and Frost 1999).”

• cites Cypher and Frost 1999 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Females typically display stronger immune responses and reduced pathogen load compared to males.

“Whilst other studies looking at sex differences and immunity suggest that females typically display stronger immune responses and reduced pathogen load compared to males (Klein 2000), greater sociality in females (Macdonald 1979, 1983) may increase viral transmission opportunities.”

• cites Klein 2000 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source