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Persistent cannabis users show neuropsychological decline from childhood to midlife
Open accessAbstract
Recent reports show that fewer adolescents believe that regular cannabis use is harmful to health. Concomitantly, adolescents are initiating cannabis use at younger ages, and more adolescents are using cannabis on a daily basis. The purpose of the present study was to test the association between persistent cannabis use and neuropsychological decline and determine whether decline is concentrated among adolescent-onset cannabis users. Participants were members of the Dunedin Study, a prospective study of a birth cohort of 1,037 individuals followed from birth (1972/1973) to age 38 y. Cannabis use was ascertained in interviews at ages 18, 21, 26, 32, and 38 y. Neuropsychological testing was conducted at age 13 y, before initiation of cannabis use, and again at age 38 y, after a pattern of persistent cannabis use had developed. Persistent cannabis use was associated with neuropsychological decline broadly across domains of functioning, even after controlling for years of education. Informants also reported noticing more cognitive problems for persistent cannabis users. Impairment was concentrated among adolescent-onset cannabis users, with more persistent use associated with greater decline. Further, cessation of cannabis use did not fully restore neuropsychological functioning among adolescent-onset cannabis users. Findings are suggestive of a neurotoxic effect of cannabis on the adolescent brain and highlight the importance of prevention and policy efforts targeting adolescents.
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“In humans, studies have reported effects of ACE on academic achievement [144], IQ [145], and performance on specific cognitive tasks [146, 147] (but see also [148]).”
From Consequences of adolescent drug use (2023) · cites this paper as [145]
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“In humans, studies have reported effects of ACE on academic achievement [144], IQ [145], and performance on”
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“Whilst cognitive deficits have also been shown to be associated with cannabis use (63) these studies suffer from the same issues as discussed above regarding establishing whether association from observational studies are causal or not.”
From Association Between Cannabis and Psychosis: Epidemiologic Evidence (2016) · cites this paper as [63]
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“Furthermore, marijuana use in early adolescence was also associated with subsequent illegal drug use and dependence in later adolescence, emerging adulthood, and adulthood (Meier et al., 2012; Toumbourou et al., 2007; Tucker, de la Haye, Kennedy, Green, & Polard, 2014).”
Applying a social determinants of health perspective to early adolescent cannabis use – An overview
Hyshka, E. (2013) · Drugs Education Prevention and Policy · doi:10.3109/09687637.2012.752434 · Cited by 81
“New data from a New Zealand birth cohort suggest that adolescent onset cannabis users may also experience long-term and permanent declines in neuropsychological function (Meier et al., 2012).”
BackgroundBar‐Sela, G., Vorobeichik, M., Drawsheh, S., Omer, A., Goldberg, V., & Muller, E. (2013) · Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine · doi:10.1155/2013/510392 · Cited by 80
“Neuropsychological decline is well known to result from prolonged time and persistent cannabis use, as was reported in the Dunedin Study, for example, a prospective study of a birth cohort of individuals followed from birth to age of 38 years [8].”
BackgroundSplendor in the Grass? A Pilot Study Assessing the Impact of Medical Marijuana on Executive Function
Gruber, S. A., Sagar, K. A., Dahlgren, M. K., Racine, M. T., Smith, R. T., & Lukas, S. E. (2016) · Frontiers in Pharmacology · doi:10.3389/fphar.2016.00355 · Cited by 86
Grey Matter Changes Associated with Heavy Cannabis Use: A Longitudinal sMRI Study
Koenders, L., Cousijn, J., Vingerhoets, W. A. M., van den Brink, W., Wiers, R. W. H. J., Meijer, C. J., Machielsen, M. W. J., Veltman, D. J., Goudriaan, A. E., & de Haan, L. (2016) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0152482 · Cited by 83
“The use of cannabis has been associated with an increased risk of mood and anxiety disorders [2–4], psychotic symptoms and psychosis [5–8], and with cognitive impairment [9].”
BackgroundThe association between regular marijuana use and adult mental health outcomes
Guttmannova, K., Kosterman, R., WHITE, H. R., Bailey, J. A., Lee, J. O., Epstein, M., Jones, T. M., & Hawkins, J. D. (2017) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2017.06.016 · Cited by 79
“Regular use was operationalized, based on previous research (i.e., Cerdá et al., 2016; Meier et al., 2012; Silins et al., 2015), as weekly use at any wave in adolescence (through age 18), and using 4+ days a week at any wave in adulthood (ages 21+).”
BackgroundMethodDoes Cannabis Use Cause Declines in Neuropsychological Functioning? A Review of Longitudinal Studies
González, R., Pacheco‐Colón, I., Duperrouzel, J. C., & Hawes, S. W. (2017) · Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society · doi:10.1017/s1355617717000789 · Cited by 77
“One of the most comprehensive studies to date on this topic has been conducted by Meier et al. (2012), which approached the question of the effects of cannabis use on neurocognitive functioning by analyzing data from 874 individuals from the Dunedin Multidisciplinary Health and Human Development Study, a longitudinal…”
InfluentialTerry‐McElrath, Y. M., O’Malley, P. M., Johnston, L. D., Bray, B. C., Patrick, M. E., & Schulenberg, J. E. (2016) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2016.11.021 · Cited by 78
“Prospective studies have been mixed as to the effects of marijuana on neuropsychological outcomes (Jackson et al., 2016; Meier et al., 2012; Mokrysz et al., 2016).”
BackgroundBourque, J., & Potvin, S. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2021.596601 · Cited by 96
“, during adolescence) (68), (ii) deficits noted in adolescents are similar to those observed in adults, but appear following less intensive use of cannabis (80, 81, 87); (iii) a combination of both.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialLongitudinal changes in white matter microstructure after heavy cannabis use
Becker, M. P., Collins, P. F., Lim, K. O., Muetzel, R. L., & Luciana, M. M. (2015) · Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2015.10.004 · Cited by 82
Jacobus, J., Squeglia, L. M., Infante, M. A., Castro, N., Brumback, T., Meruelo, A. D., & Tapert, S. F. (2015) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/neu0000203 · Cited by 92
“…throughout adolescence and likely represent the consequences of more severe and pervasive use patterns established by young adulthood (age 38), versus elucidating the cognitive sequelae of " subdiagnostic " use increasing in prevalence during adolescence (Johnston et al., 2014; Meier et al., 2012).”
Cannabis: An Overview of its Adverse Acute and Chronic Effects and its Implications
Ford, T. C., Hayley, A. C., Downey, L. A., & Parrott, A. C. (2017) · Current Drug Abuse Reviews · doi:10.2174/1874473710666170712113042 · Cited by 80
Stea, J. N., Yakovenko, I., & Hodgins, D. C. (2015) · Psychology of Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1037/adb0000097 · Cited by 81
Steenkamp, M. M., Blessing, E., Galatzer‐Levy, I. R., Hollahan, L., & Anderson, W. T. (2017) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1002/da.22596 · Cited by 80
Bossong, M. G., Jager, G., Bhattacharyya, S., & Allen, P. (2014) · Current Pharmaceutical Design · doi:10.2174/13816128113199990436 · Cited by 75
“For example, neuropsychological studies that make a distinction between the initiation of cannabis use in adolescence and in adult life show poor cognitive performance in early-onset cannabis users, but not in late-onset users or control subjects [24-27].”
BackgroundBechtold, J., Hipwell, A. E., Lewis, D. A., Loeber, R., & Pardini, D. A. (2016) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2016.15070878 · Cited by 75
Cannabis and Canada’s children and youth
Grant, C. N., & Bélanger, R. E. (2017) · Paediatrics & Child Health · doi:10.1093/pch/pxx017 · Cited by 75
“One large cohort study had previously found that IQ scores declined significantly among heavy cannabis users who were followed prospectively from adolescence to middle age (61).”
BackgroundNondisordered Cannabis Use Among US Adolescents
Sultan, R. S., Zhang, A. W., Olfson, M., Kwizera, M. H., & LEVIN, F. R. (2023) · JAMA Network Open · doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2023.11294 · Cited by 74
Prevalence of Marijuana-Related Traffic on Twitter, 2012–2013: A Content Analysis
Thompson, L. L., Rivara, F. P., & Whitehill, J. M. (2015) · Cyberpsychology Behavior and Social Networking · doi:10.1089/cyber.2014.0620 · Cited by 73
Bruijnzeel, A. W., Knight, P., Panunzio, S., Xue, S., Bruner, M. M., Wall, S. C., Pompilus, M., Febo, M., & Setlow, B. (2019) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-019-05255-7 · Cited by 73
Hadland, S. E., Knight, J. R., & Harris, S. K. (2015) · Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics · doi:10.1097/dbp.0000000000000129 · Cited by 76
“Meier et al, 2012 Y IQ Pope et al, 2003 Y IQ Ehrenreich et al, 1999 Y Attention Huestegge et al, 2002 Y Visual search Fontes et al, 2011 Y Executive functioning”
BackgroundImpact of ADHD and cannabis use on executive functioning in young adults
Tamm, L., Epstein, J. N., Lisdahl, K. M., Molina, B. S. G., Tapert, S. F., Hinshaw, S. P., Arnold, L. E., Velanova, K., Abikoff, H., & Swanson, J. M. (2013) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2013.08.001 · Cited by 81
“It should be noted that studies suggest that dose, persistence, and chronicity of use may impact the effect of cannabis on EF (Almeida et al., 2008; Meier et al., 2012).”
BackgroundBarry, R. A., & Glantz, S. A. (2016) · PLoS Medicine · doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1002131 · Cited by 73
“Health messages would include risk of dependence [2], cardiovascular [2,44,45], respiratory [25], and neurological disease [46], and cancer [23], and would warn against driving a vehicle or operating equipment, as well as the risks of co-use with tobacco or alcohol.”
BackgroundWorking Memory and Alcohol Use in At‐Risk Adolescents: A 2‐Year Follow‐Up
Peeters, M., Monshouwer, K., Janssen, T., Wiers, R. W. H. J., & Vollebergh, W. (2014) · Alcoholism Clinical and Experimental Research · doi:10.1111/acer.12339 · Cited by 76
Jacobus, J., Squeglia, L. M., Sorg, S. F., Nguyen‐Louie, T. T., & Tapert, S. F. (2014) · Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs · doi:10.15288/jsad.2014.75.729 · Cited by 73
Cannabidiol attenuates deficits of visuospatial associative memory induced by Δ9tetrahydrocannabinol
Wright, M. J., Vandewater, S. A., & Taffe, M. A. (2013) · British Journal of Pharmacology · doi:10.1111/bph.12199 · Cited by 72
“(2010), relates to recent demonstration that cannabis users who start in adolescence may experience essentially permanent decrements of full-scale IQ (Meier et al., 2012).”
BackgroundBellis, M. D. D., Wang, L., Bergman, S. R., Yaxley, R. H., Hooper, S. R., & Huettel, S. A. (2013) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2013.05.020 · Cited by 76
Carbonell, C. S., Rueda‐Orozco, P. E., Gómez, E. S., Buzsáki, G., Marsicano, G., & Robbe, D. (2012) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1217144110 · Cited by 72
“The results reveal the cell- and region-specific mechanisms underlying a dual modulation of cortical synchrony by exogenous cannabinoids and pave the way to a refined understanding of the cognitive alterations associated with marijuana consumption (21, 22).”
BackgroundSmith, M. J., Cobia, D. J., Wang, L., Alpert, K. I., Cronenwett, W. J., Goldman, M. B., Mamah, D. T., Barch, D. M., Breiter, H. C., & Csernansky, J. G. (2013) · Schizophrenia Bulletin · doi:10.1093/schbul/sbt176 · Cited by 70
“Because the combination of shape with volumetric assessments can improve detection of subtle differences in morphology,32–34 we used both methods to test the following hypotheses: (1) healthy subjects with remote CUDs (ie, history of cannabis abuse or dependence, but not during the past 6 months) (CON-CUD) would demon…”
MethodResultInfluentialShrier, L. A., Burke, P. J., Kells, M., Scherer, E. A., Sarda, V., Jonestrask, C., Xuan, Z., & Harris, S. K. (2018) · mHealth · doi:10.21037/mhealth.2018.07.04 · Cited by 70
The Role of Endocannabinoid Signaling in Cortical Inhibitory Neuron Dysfunction in Schizophrenia
Volk, D. W., & Lewis, D. A. (2015) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2015.06.015 · Cited by 73
“(101) [23] In situ hybridization, immunocytochemistry Lower CB1R mRNA and protein levels in DLPFC area 9; no change in antipsychotic-exposed monkeys”
BackgroundExecutive functioning and substance use in adolescence: Neurobiological and behavioral perspectives
Kim‐Spoon, J., Kahn, R. E., Lauharatanahirun, N., Deater-Deckard, K. D., Bickel, W. K., Chiu, P. H., & King‐Casas, B. (2017) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2017.04.020 · Cited by 73
“Also, prefrontal cortex impairment may further contribute to disinhibited behavior and inability to discontinue substance use (e.g., Goldstein & Volkow, 2002; Meier et al., 2012; see Silveri, Dager, Cohen-Gilbert, & Sneider, 2016 for review).”
White Matter Integrity Pre- and Post Marijuana and Alcohol Initiation in Adolescence
Jacobus, J., Squeglia, L. M., Infante, M., Bava, S., & Tapert, S. F. (2013) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci3010396 · Cited by 70
“Initiation of marijuana use during adolescence may have long-lasting neurocognitive consequences [22], particularly in the areas of sustained attention, executive functioning [23], impulse control [24], and verbal memory [19].”
BackgroundEndocannabinoid System and Exogenous Cannabinoids in Depression and Anxiety: A Review
Hasbi, A., Madras, B. K., & George, S. R. (2023) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci13020325 · Cited by 69
Predicting Young Adult Degree Attainment by Late Adolescent Marijuana Use
Maggs, J. L., Staff, J., Kloska, D. D., Patrick, M. E., O’Malley, P. M., & Schulenberg, J. E. (2015) · Journal of Adolescent Health · doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2015.04.028 · Cited by 71
“Alternatively, marijuana use may increase risk for accident and injuries [24] or harm cognitive neuropsychological performance, neural connectivity, and brain development [19, 25].”
BackgroundEffects of marijuana use on prefrontal and parietal volumes and cognition in emerging adults
Price, J. S., McQueeny, T. M., Shollenbarger, S. G., Browning, E. L., Wieser, J., & Lisdahl, K. M. (2015) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-015-3931-0 · Cited by 70
Popova, L., McDonald, E. A., Sidhu, S., Barry, R. A., Maruyama, T. A. R., Sheon, N. M., & Ling, P. M. (2017) · Addiction · doi:10.1111/add.13854 · Cited by 68
“Long-term and heavy use probably results in persistent cognitive impairments, especially if use begins during adolescence [19,20].”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Meier, M. H., Caspi, A., Ambler, A., Harrington, H., Houts, R., Keefe, R. S. E., McDonald, K., Ward, A., Poulton, R., & Moffitt, T. E.
- Affiliations
- Duke University (US)
- King's College London (GB)
- University of Otago (NZ)
- ORCID
- Venue
- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
- Publisher
- National Academy of Sciences
- Published
- 2012-08-27
- Volume
- 109
- Issue
- 40
- Pages
- E2657-64
- ISSN
- 0027-8424 (ISSN-L)
- 1091-6490
- PMC
- PMC3479587
- OpenAlex
- W2153739923
- Cited by
- 1,523
- References
- 59
- Citations by year
- 2026: 48 · 2025: 69 · 2024: 57 · 2023: 103 · 2022: 86 · 2021: 112 · 2020: 144 · 2019: 139 · 2018: 119 · 2017: 149 · 2016: 152 · 2015: 130 · 2014: 114 · 2013: 83 · 2012: 15
- FWCI
- 80.45
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Research Portal (King's College London) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Jacobs Foundation (AG032282)
- Medical Research Council (MR/K00381X, MR/K00381X/1, AG032282, G0100527)
- National Institute on Aging (AG-032282, R01AG032282)
- National Institute of Mental Health (MH-077874, R01MH077874)
- National Institute on Drug Abuse (P30DA023026)
- Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (P2CHD065563, R24HD065563)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Pharmacology (medical) › Cannabis and Cannabinoid Research
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Epidemiology › Substance Abuse Treatment and Outcomes
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Pediatrics, Perinatology and Child Health › Prenatal Substance Exposure Effects
- Keywords
- cannabis use, neuropsychological decline, cognitive impairment, adolescent brain development, neurotoxicity, cannabis cessation, Dunedin Study, birth cohort
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Age Factors, Humans, Longitudinal Studies, Marijuana Smoking, Mental Processes, Neuropsychological Tests, Prospective Studies, Regression Analysis, Cohort Studies, Least-Squares Analysis
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