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Cognitive fatigue influences students’ performance on standardized tests
Open accessAbstract
Using test data for all children attending Danish public schools between school years 2009/10 and 2012/13, we examine how the time of the test affects performance. Test time is determined by the weekly class schedule and computer availability at the school. We find that, for every hour later in the day, test performance decreases by 0.9% of an SD (95% CI, 0.7-1.0%). However, a 20- to 30-minute break improves average test performance by 1.7% of an SD (95% CI, 1.2-2.2%). These findings have two important policy implications: First, cognitive fatigue should be taken into consideration when deciding on the length of the school day and the frequency and duration of breaks throughout the day. Second, school accountability systems should control for the influence of external factors on test scores.
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“Similar deleterious effects are observed in in children, in whom fatigue is associated with poorer school performance [22,23,24].”
From Vitamins and Minerals for Energy, Fatigue and Cognition: A Narrative Review of the Biochemical and Clinical Evidence (2020) · cites this paper as [22]
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BackgroundA soft magnetoelastic sensor to decode levels of fatigue
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“…on a standardized test (e.g. Endo and Kogi, 1975; Levav et al., 2010; Danziger et al., 2011; Brachet et al., 2012; Augenblick and Nicholson, 2015; Sievertsen et al., 2016; Meuter and Lacherez, 2016; Warm et al., 2018; Balart et al., 2018; Borghans and Schils, 2015; Hirshleifer et al., 2019;…”
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“This theory is supported by research suggesting a ‘fatigue’ effect on standardised test results (Sievertsen, Gino, and Piovesan 2016).”
ResultIncrease in Brain Effective Connectivity in Multitasking but not in a High-Fatigue State
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“Mental fatigue can impair cognitive performance during working activities [4], driving [5], or studying [6].”
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“The income and wealth measures of Statistics Denmark are based on third-party 2Data from the National Tests in Danish Public schools is fairly new, but has been used for research before (e.g., Andersen et al., 2016; Sievertsen et al., 2016).”
MethodDokmak, A., Radwan, A., Halpin, M., Jaber, B. L., & Nader, C. M. (2019) · Medical Education Online · doi:10.1080/10872981.2019.1686950 · Cited by 7
“Cognitive fatigue has also been shown to influence the performance of students on standardized tests [7].”
BackgroundAssessment of Cognitive Fatigue from Gait Cycle Analysis
Pavel, H. R., Karim, E., Jaiswal, A., Acharya, S., Nale, G., Theofanidis, M., & Makedon, F. S. (2023) · Technologies · doi:10.3390/technologies11010018 · Cited by 7
Do Testing Conditions Explain Cyber Charter Schools’ Failing Grades?
Beck, D. E., Watson, A. R., & Maranto, R. (2018) · American Journal of Distance Education · doi:10.1080/08923647.2019.1554989 · Cited by 7
“These results con fi rm research from TPS showing that as student fatigue increases, standardized test scores may decrease (Ackerman & Kanfer, 2009; Sievertsen et al., 2016).”
BackgroundResultGlobal warming, pollution and cognitive developments
Horvath, D., & Borgonovi, F. (2022) · OECD social employment and migration working papers · doi:10.1787/319b9a1f-en · Cited by 12
SARIAKÇALI, N., & KIRPIK, G. (2022) · Abant Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi · doi:10.11616/asbi.1146908 · Cited by 6
In the eye of the beholder – how course delivery affects anatomy education
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“Testing- and “Zoom-” fatigues are other potential problems that typically occur in an online teaching environment (Bailenson, 2021; Sievertsen et al., 2016).”
BackgroundSchepers, A. M., Schorrlepp, L., de Vries, J. D., de Kloe, T., van der Linden, D., & Bijleveld, E. (2023) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2023.103558 · Cited by 8
Reconceptualizing Ego Depletion as Transient Cognitive FatiguePreprint
Hurley, P. J. (2021) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.31234/osf.io/sy2mw · Cited by 6
Revisiting file context for source code summarization
Su, C., Bansal, A., & McMillan, C. (2024) · Automated Software Engineering · doi:10.1007/s10515-024-00460-x · Cited by 9
“To mitigate the threat of participant exhaustion we restrict the time of our study to around 1 h as recommended in related work (Sievertsen et al. 2016).”
Han, J.-C., Zhang, C., Cai, Y.-D., Li, Y., Shang, Y., Chen, Z., Yang, G., Song, J.-J., Su, D., Bai, K., et al. (2025) · Brain Research Bulletin · doi:10.1016/j.brainresbull.2025.111223 · Cited by 5
Loucks, J. N., Eggett, D. L., Dunn, M. L., Steele, F. M., & Jefferies, L. K. (2016) · Food Quality and Preference · doi:10.1016/j.foodqual.2016.09.007 · Cited by 5
PowerPoint Use in the Undergraduate Biology Classroom: Perceptions and Impacts on Student Learning
Smith-Peavler, E., Gardner, G. E., & Otter, R. R. (2019) · The journal of college science teaching · doi:10.2505/4/jcst19_048_03_74 · Cited by 5
Psychological stress in Northeast Indian students pursuing their higher studies in Mangalore
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Wise, S. L., Kuhfeld, M. R., & Lindner, M. A. (2024) · Applied Measurement in Education · doi:10.1080/08957347.2024.2311925 · Cited by 5
“For example, Sievertsen, Gino, and Piovesan (2016) found that test performance on the Danish Government National Tests steadily decreased during the school day and concluded that the effect was due to increasing cognitive fatigue.”
BackgroundMinton, A. G., Zhu, H. Y., Chen, H., Wang, Y., Zhuang, Z., Notaro, G. M., Galvan-Garza, R. C., Allen, J. P., Ziegler, M. D., & Lin, C. (2025) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3706598.3713402 · Cited by 5
“Circadian fatigue, often stemming from sleep deprivation, significantly impacts human performance across physical [49, 57] and cognitive domains [27, 86].”
Kingsbury, I., Maranto, R., & Beck, D. E. (2020) · Journal of School Choice · doi:10.1080/15582159.2020.1845526 · Cited by 5
“That a negative, statistically significant relationship emerges in mathematics exams makes sense given that fatigue appears to have a particularly pronounced impact on mathematics achievement (Sievertsen et al., 2016).”
BackgroundLindner, C., Nagy, G., Roell, L., & Zitzmann, S. (2025) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931.2025.2468281 · Cited by 5
“As already shown, structured breaks during cognitive tasks seem essential in educational and work contexts to reduce fatigue effects, helping individuals sustain attention and accuracy (Kim et al., 2018; Sievertsen et al., 2016).”
Inan, F. A., Unal, D., Marzban, F., Sosi, E. T., & Bayne, G. A. (2025) · European Journal of Investigation in Health Psychology and Education · doi:10.3390/ejihpe15070118 · Cited by 9
“When students experience mental fatigue or mental tiredness, this impairs learners’ ability to focus on crucial elements of targeted tasks and their decision-making abilities (Sievertsen et al., 2016).”
Predicting Students Final Academic Performance Using Deep Learning Techniques
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Use of brain-computer interface in educational paradigm
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“Researchers indicate that the cause of mental weariness remains unknown; nonetheless, a kind of "mental fuel" is depleted [37].”
Physical and Digital Educational Escape Room for Chemical Education
Ang, J. W. J., Cai, S., Ng, Y. N. A., & Liew, R. S. (2023) · IntechOpen eBooks · doi:10.5772/intechopen.1001960 · Cited by 4
No seasonality in cognitive performance among adolescents at a subarctic latitude (69°N)
Friborg, O., Sundby, J., Rognmo, K., Rosenvinge, J. H., & Bergvik, S. (2018) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.3397 · Cited by 4
Metadata
- Authors
- Sievertsen, H. H., Gino, F., & Piovesan, M.
- Affiliations
- Danish National Centre for Social Research (DK)
- Harvard Business School, Harvard University, Boston, MA 02163;
- University of Copenhagen (DK)
- Venue
- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
- Publisher
- National Academy of Sciences
- Published
- 2016-02-16
- Volume
- 113
- Issue
- 10
- Pages
- 2621-2624
- ISSN
- 0027-8424 (ISSN-L)
- 1091-6490
- PMC
- PMC4790980
- OpenAlex
- W2281113764
- Cited by
- 194
- References
- 25
- Citations by year
- 2026: 16 · 2025: 24 · 2024: 28 · 2023: 17 · 2022: 28 · 2021: 12 · 2020: 16 · 2019: 25 · 2018: 16 · 2017: 7 · 2016: 5
- FWCI
- 81.37
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Research at the University of Copenhagen (University of Copenhagen) (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- Bristol Research (University of Bristol) (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- Explore Bristol Research (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Funders
- Danmarks Frie Forskningsfond (09-070295)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Education › School Choice and Performance
- Social Sciences › Education › Educational Outcomes and Influences
- Social Sciences › Education › Educational Assessment and Improvement
- Keywords
- mental fatigue, standardized test performance, school holidays, school day length, computer availability, school accountability, academic performance, Danish public schools
- MeSH terms
- Achievement, Algorithms, Child, Cognition, Denmark, Educational Measurement, Mental Fatigue, Humans, Learning, Models, Theoretical, Schools, Students
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