Racial disparities in school-based disciplinary actions are associated with county-level rates of racial bias
Open accessAbstract
There are substantial gaps in educational outcomes between black and white students in the United States. Recently, increased attention has focused on differences in the rates at which black and white students are disciplined, finding that black students are more likely to be seen as problematic and more likely to be punished than white students are for the same offense. Although these disparities suggest that racial biases are a contributor, no previous research has shown associations with psychological measurements of bias and disciplinary outcomes. We show that county-level estimates of racial bias, as measured using data from approximately 1.6 million visitors to the Project Implicit website, are associated with racial disciplinary disparities across approximately 96,000 schools in the United States, covering around 32 million white and black students. These associations do not extend to sexuality biases, showing the specificity of the effect. These findings suggest that acknowledging that racial biases and racial disparities in education go hand-in-hand may be an important step in resolving both of these social ills.
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Black and American Indian youth received higher rates of punitive discipline than other racial/ethnic groups.
“and Black and American Indian youth received higher rates of punitive discipline than other racial/ethnic groups (66).”
From Structural Racism and Suicide Prevention for Ethnoracially Minoritized Youth: A Conceptual Framework and Illustration Across Systems (2022) · cites this paper as [66]
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- Authors
- Riddle, T., & Sinclair, S.
- Affiliations
- Princeton University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Riddle, Travis
- Venue
- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
- Publisher
- National Academy of Sciences
- Published
- 2019-04-02
- Volume
- 116
- Issue
- 17
- Pages
- 8255-8260
- ISSN
- 0027-8424 (ISSN-L)
- 1091-6490
- PMC
- PMC6486724
- OpenAlex
- W2927143278
- Cited by
- 269
- References
- 35
- Citations by year
- 2026: 19 · 2025: 35 · 2024: 30 · 2023: 47 · 2022: 66 · 2021: 46 · 2020: 23 · 2019: 3
- FWCI
- 92.98
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Princeton University
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Education › Education Discipline and Inequality
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Racial and Ethnic Identity Research
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Critical Race Theory in Education
- Keywords
- racial bias, implicit bias, Project Implicit, Black students, white students, educational inequality, student discipline
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Black or African American, Child, Educational Status, Humans, Schools, Socioeconomic Factors, Students, United States, Models, Statistical, White People, Racism
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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