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Cited by 81Posttraumatic Stress Disorder ResearchPsychoanalysis and Psychopathology ResearchChild Abuse and Trauma

Post-traumatic stress disorder: evolutionary perspectives

Cantor, Chris·2009·Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry
DOI 10.1080/00048670903270407
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Abstract

Fear is the key emotion of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Fear's evolved function is motivating survival via defensive behaviours. Defensive behaviours have been highly conserved throughout mammalian species; hence much may be learned from ethology. Predation pressure drove the early evolution of defences, laying foundations in the more ancient brain structures. Conspecific (same species) pressure has been a more recent evolutionary influence, but along with environmental threats it has dominated PTSD research. Anti-predator responses involve both avoiding a predator's sensory field and avoiding detection if within it, as well as escape behaviours. More effective avoidance results in less need for escape behaviours, suggesting that avoidance is biologically distinct from flight. Recognizing the predation, environmental and conspecific origins of defence may result in clearer definition of PTSD phenomena. Defence can also be viewed in the stages of no threat, potential threat, encounter and circa strike. Specific defences are used sequentially and according to contexts, loosely in the order: avoidance, attentive immobility, withdrawal, aggressive defence, appeasement and tonic immobility. The DSM-IV criteria and PTSD research show substantial congruence with the model proposed: that PTSD is a disorder of heightened defence involving six key defences used in conjunction with vigilance and risk assessment according to contexts. Human research is reviewed in this respect with reference to laboratory and wild animal observations providing new insights. Understanding individual perceptual issues (e.g. predictability and controllability) relevant to these phenomena, combined with defence strategy recalibration and neuronal plasticity research goes some way to explaining why some traumatized individuals develop PTSD when others do not.

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Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • PTSD affects victims of various types of traumas at differential rates: intentional acts of interpersonal violence, in particular sexual assault, lead to PTSD at far higher rates than do accidents or disasters.

    “intentional acts of interpersonal violence, in particular sexual assault, lead to PTSD at far higher rates than do accidents or disasters (Cantor, 2009).”

    From Oxytocin Facilitates Pavlovian Fear Learning in Males (2016) · cites this paper as Cantor, 2009

  • Increased vigilance or defense typically characterizes SAD and PTSD.

    “This increased vigilance or defense typically characterizes SAD (Heeren et al, 2015) and PTSD (Cantor, 2009).”

    From Oxytocin Facilitates Pavlovian Fear Learning in Males (2016) · cites this paper as Cantor, 2009

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Authors
Cantor, C.
Affiliations
The University of Queensland (AU)
Corresponding author
Cantor, Chris
Venue
Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry
Publisher
SAGE Publications
Published
2009-11
Volume
43
Issue
11
Pages
1038-1048
ISSN
0004-8674 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1080/00048670903270407
OpenAlex
W2005913622
Cited by
81
References
0
Citations by year
2026: 6 · 2025: 5 · 2024: 2 · 2023: 5 · 2022: 7 · 2021: 10 · 2020: 9 · 2019: 8 · 2018: 4 · 2017: 5 · 2016: 3 · 2015: 5 · 2014: 4 · 2013: 1 · 2012: 2
FWCI
2.47
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
closed
Locations
  • Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Research
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychoanalysis and Psychopathology Research
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child Abuse and Trauma
Keywords
post-traumatic stress disorder, evolutionary psychology, fear, defensive behavior, ethology, predation, avoidance, escape behavior, vigilantism, risk assessment, controllability, neuroplasticity, defense strategy
MeSH terms
Adaptation, Psychological, Animals, Behavior, Animal, Defense Mechanisms, Biological Evolution, Fear, Humans, Predatory Behavior, Stress Disorders, Post-Traumatic, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders

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