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Learning as a Function of Time
Abstract
Measures of instructional time are grouped into four ranges-years, days, hours, and minutes-and the strength of the association to outcomes is reviewed within each grouping. Time predicts learning outcomes at a modest level in most of the research, but with exceptions. The use of composite or precise indicators of time-on-task and the use of content-specific outcome measures seem to strengthen the correlational evidence. Complexities such as diminishing returns, the existence of optimum amounts of time, the proper unit of analysis, and the question of causality imply that true experimental designs would clarify the nature of the relationship. The need to include time as one factor in a theory of educational productivity is presented.
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Citations
Cited by
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Using Research to Answer Practical Questions About Homework
Cooper, H., & Valentine, J. C. (2001) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1207/s15326985ep3603_1 · Cited by 329
Meditation experience predicts introspective accuracy.
Fox, K. C. R., Zakarauskas, P., Dixon, M., Ellamil, M., Thompson, E., & Christoff, K. (2012) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0045370 · Cited by 190
Zhang, Y., Luo, R., Zhu, Y., & Yin, Y. (2021) · Journal of Educational Computing Research · doi:10.1177/0735633121994070 · Cited by 137
Classroom Strategies to Enhance Academic Engaged Time
Gettinger, M., & Walter, M. J. (2012) · Handbook of Research on Student Engagement · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-2018-7_31 · Cited by 89
Metadata
- Authors
- Fredrick, W. C., & Walberg, H. J.
- Venue
- The Journal of Educational Research
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 1980-03
- Volume
- 73
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 183-194
- ISSN
- 0022-0671 (ISSN-L)
- 1940-0675
- OpenAlex
- W2045161227
- Cited by
- 314
- References
- 0
- FWCI
- 94.39
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
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Contains information from the Semantic Scholar Academic Graph Datasets, made available under the ODC Attribution License (ODC-BY 1.0).
Semantic Scholar’s data is described in: Kinney, R., et al. (2023). The Semantic Scholar Open Data Platform. arXiv:2301.10140.
