A Review of Theory and Research on the Assumptions of Miller'S Response Competition (Conflict) Models: Response Gradients
Abstract
This is a review of published theory and research on the assumptions that underlie Miller's conflict models. Operational distinctions are made between single-goal and multiple-goal conditions and, within the latter, the spatial, temporal, and stimulus dimensions. Major operational divergences in research outcomes are single- vs. multiple-goal conditions and strength-of-pull vs. other measures. Support for Miller's postulate system is equivocal, with considerable support available for several alternate postulates. A preferred interpretation is that response gradients can assume any degree of steepness or generality as a function of several manipulation and selection conditions. One manipulation variable, time before testing, produces flatter gradients which simulate unpracticed time-course effects. A major unfinished research area deals with the summation hypothesis or, more generally, specification of principles of combination for response gradients.
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The limited research conducted with humans used mostly physiological measurements that were noninstrumental for goal achievement.
“The limited research conducted with humans used mostly physiological measurements (e.g., galvanic skin response, heart rate, arm pressure) that were noninstrumental for goal achievement.”
From The Goal-Gradient Hypothesis Resurrected: Purchase Acceleration, Illusionary Goal Progress, and Customer Retention (2006) · cites this paper as Heilizer 1977
It is difficult to interpret noninstrumental behaviors and physiological measurements as evidence supporting or refuting the goal-gradient hypothesis.
“As Heilizer (1977) details, it is difficult to interpret noninstrumental behaviors and physiological measurements as evidence supporting (or refuting) the goal-gradient hypothesis.”
From The Goal-Gradient Hypothesis Resurrected: Purchase Acceleration, Illusionary Goal Progress, and Customer Retention (2006) · cites this paper as Heilizer 1977
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Feuge, R. L., & Ellis, H. C. (1969) · Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0026940 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Age differences in the control of acquired fear by tone.
Frieman, J. P., Rohrbaugh, M. J., & Riccio, D. C. (1969) · Canadian Journal of Psychology/Revue Canadienne de Psychologie · doi:10.1037/h0082811 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Stimulus generalization following monocular training in octopus.
Muntz, W. R. A. (1962) · Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0049322 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Conflict Models, Alcohol, and Drinking Patterns
Heilizer, F. (1964) · The Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1080/00223980.1964.9916713 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Self-citationGeneralization of acquired fear as a function of CS intensity and number of acquisition trials.
Desiderato, O. L. (1964) · Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0045113 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Primary stimulus generalization and secondary extinction as a function of strength of conditioning.
Hoffeld, D. R. (1962) · Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0041977 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Generalization of an instrumental response with variation in two attributes of the CS.
White, S. H. (1958) · Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0042649 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Temporal gradients of response strength with two levels of motivation.
Rosenbaum, G. (1951) · Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0054338 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Approach and avoidance gradients and conflict behavior in a predominantly temporal situation.
Rigby, W. K. (1954) · Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0058061 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Goal distance and restless activity. I. The goal gradient of restless activity.
Geier, F. M., & Tolman, E. C. (1943) · Journal of comparative psychology · doi:10.1037/h0062878 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Stimulus generalization and overinclusion in normal and schizophrenic subjects.
Al‐Issa, I. (1972) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0033399 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Kaplan, K. J., Firestone, I. J., Degnore, R., & Moore, M. (1974) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0037452 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Generalizations from the Distinction of Passive and Active Avoidance
Gerbrandt, L. K. (1964) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.2466/pr0.1964.15.1.11 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Dependence of equality judgments upon the temporal interval between stimulus presentations.
McAllister, W. R., McAllister, D. E., & Franchina, J. J. (1965) · Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0022675 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
THE EFFECT OF A VARIABLE CONDITIONED STIMULUS UPON THE GENERALIZATION OF AN INSTRUMENTAL RESPONSE
White, S. H., & Spiker, C. C. (1960) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1960.tb04968.x · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Adaptation level as a factor in human wavelength generalization.
Tomie, A., & Thomas, D. R. (1974) · Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0036805 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Goal gradient or entrance gradient?
Dennis, W. (1935) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/h0063138 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Effect of type of catch trial upon generalization gradients of reaction time.
Berge, D. L. (1971) · Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0030526 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Spatial stimulus generalization as a function of white noise and activation level.
Thayer, R. E., & Carey, D. (1974) · Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0035856 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Brennan, J., & Riccio, D. C. (1973) · Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0035030 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Stimulus intensity dynamism and auditory generalization for approach and avoidance behavior in rats.
Hearst, E. S. (1969) · Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0027680 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Harrison, A. A. (1974) · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Kurt Lewin's approach to conflict and its resolution A review with some extensions
Levinger, G. (1957) · Conflict Resolution · doi:10.1177/002200275700100402 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Generalization of children's preferences as a function of reinforcement and task similarity.
Gewirtz, H. B. (1959) · Journal of Abnormal & Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0046892 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
An empirical determination of an approach gradient.
Smith, N. W. (1960) · Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0039357 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
STIMULUS GENERALIZATION AS A FUNCTION OF MENTAL AGE
Tempone, V. J. (1965) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1965.tb05295.x · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Stimulus generalization and schizophrenia.
Buss, A. H., & Daniell, E. F. (1967) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0020082 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
MEDIATIONAL PROCISSES IN PRIMARY STIMULUS GENERALIZATION
Tempone, V. J. (1966) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1966.tb04318.x · Cited by 9 · see citing works
A Device for Recording a Rat's Position in a Straight Alley
Brown, J. S., & Hoopes, J. J. (1965) · The American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.2307/1421093 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
The application of the approach-avoidance conflict model to social behavior 1
Maher, B. A. (1964) · Journal of Conflict Resolution · doi:10.1177/002200276400800307 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Relationship of manifest anxiety to stimulus generalization.
Fager, R. E., & Knopf, I. J. (1958) · Journal of Abnormal & Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0044849 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Hoffman, H. S., & Fleshler, M. (1963) · Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0043630 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
STIMULUS FACTORS IN AVERSIVE CONTROLS: CONDITIONED SUPPRESSION AFTER EQUAL TRAINING TO TWO STIMULI1
Hoffman, H. S., Selekman, W., & Fleshler, M. (1966) · Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior · doi:10.1901/jeab.1966.9-649 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Stimulus generalization along dimensions of an active avoidance CS in young rats
Brennan, J. F., & Riccio, D. C. (1972) · Psychonomic Science · doi:10.3758/bf03342583 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
GSR Measures of Cigarette Smokers’ Temporal Approach and Avoidance Gradients
Smith, N. W. (1965) · The Psychological Record · doi:10.1007/bf03393593 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Relative Steepness of Approach and Avoidance Gradients in Humans
Losco, J., & Epstein, S. J. (1974) · Proceedings of the Division of Personality and Society Psychology · doi:10.1177/014616727400100170 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
The Concept of Goal Gradients: A Review of its Present Status
Cohen, J. (1953) · The Journal of General Psychology · doi:10.1080/00221309.1953.9710094 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Extinction of instrumental behavior as a function of frustration at various distances from the goal.
Adelman, H. M., & Rosenbaum, G. (1954) · Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0062578 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
A conditioned response technique to investigate "experimental neurosis" in the rat.
Bijou, S. W. (1951) · Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0060986 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Theories of choice and conflict in psychology and economics
HOLZMAN, M. S. (1958) · Journal of Conflict Resolution · doi:10.1177/002200275800200403 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
EFFECT OF INCENTIVE CONDITIONS ON STIMULUS GENERALIZATION IN CHILDREN12
Jeffrey, W. E., & Skager, R. W. (1962) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1962.tb05121.x · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Locomotion gradients in the activity wheel.
Meade, R. D., & Newman, P. J. (1960) · Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0044244 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Brown, J. S., Anderson, D. C., & Brown, C. S. (1966) · Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0023671 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Pereboom, A. C. (1958) · Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0044360 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Somiya, T. (1960) · The Japanese journal of psychology · doi:10.4992/jjpsy.31.26 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
On the Origin of Conflict Types
Smith, N. W. (1968) · The Psychological Record · doi:10.1007/bf03393765 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
The effect of speed-up instructions on spatial stimulus generalization.
Harleston, B. W. (1961) · Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0042574 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Generalization gradients obtained after continuous reinforcement of an operant response
Hearst, E. S., Taus, S. E., & Koresko, M. B. (1971) · Psychonomic Science · doi:10.3758/bf03331799 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Approach-Avoidance Conflict: II. Role of Olfactory Cues
Elder, S. T., Kuehne, T. E., & Moriarty, D. D. (1970) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.2466/pr0.1970.27.2.631 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Running speed as a function of stimulus similarity and number of trials.
Jensen, G. D., & Cotton, J. W. (1961) · Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0044249 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Two factors affecting stimulus generalization on a spatial dimension.
Evans, W. Ο. (1961) · Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0045241 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Gradients in response percentages as indices of nonspatial generalization.
Bass, B. (1958) · Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0042658 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
A test of the independence of the approach and avoidance gradients
Richardson, W., & Donahoe, J. W. (1967) · Psychonomic Science · doi:10.3758/bf03327893 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Effect of stimulus condition and reaction time information on spatial stimulus generalization.
Nakamura, C. Y., & Kaswan, J. W. (1962) · Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0041714 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Approach-Avoidance Conflict: I. Empirically Determined Speed-of-Locomotion Approach Gradients
Elder, S. T., Kuehne, T. E., Clark, N., & Larre, E. E. (1970) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.2466/pr0.1970.27.2.623 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Anxiety and overgeneralization: Negative results.
Murray, E. N. (1969) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0028035 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Empirical gradients of generalization in a perceptual-motor task.
Andreas, B. G. (1954) · Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0055965 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Kirschner, D. (1964) · Journal of Consulting Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0045702 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
A Simulated Runway with an Approaching Goal and Stationary Subject
Huston, J. P. (1967) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.2466/pr0.1967.21.3.871 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
On the assumption of a steeper gradient in Miller's conflict theory.
Bogartz, R. S. (1965) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/h0021699 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
A Note on the Concept of Conflict
Oram, P. G., & Heilizer, F. (1965) · The Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1080/00223980.1965.9916774 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Self-citationStimulus generalization following monocular training in the rat.
Muntz, W. R. A. (1963) · Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0041071 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Worell, L., & Worell, J. (1963) · The Journal of General Psychology · doi:10.1080/00221309.1963.9920555 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Performance in the Runway as a Function of Stimulus-Differentiation
Saltz, E., Whitman, R. N., & Paul, C. (1963) · The American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.2307/1420009 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
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Kivetz, R., Urminsky, O., & Zheng, Y. (2006) · Journal of Marketing Research · doi:10.1509/jmkr.43.1.39 · Cited by 731 · see citing works
Does my contribution to your crowdfunding project matter?
Kuppuswamy, V., & Bayus, B. L. (2016) · Journal of Business Venturing · doi:10.1016/j.jbusvent.2016.10.004 · Cited by 461 · see citing works
The Job Search Grind: Perceived Progress, Self-Reactions, and Self-Regulation of Search Effort
Wanberg, C. R., Zhu, J., & van Hooft, E. A. J. (2010) · Academy of Management Journal · doi:10.5465/amj.2010.52814599 · Cited by 289 · see citing works
Crowdfunding success: a systematic literature review 2010–2017
Shneor, R., & Vik, A. A. (2020) · Baltic Journal of Management · doi:10.1108/bjm-04-2019-0148 · Cited by 214 · see citing works
Abstract and concrete self-evaluative goals.
Freitas, A. L., Salovey, P., & Liberman, N. (2001) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.80.3.410 · Cited by 151 · see citing works
The influence of goals on value and choice
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Winning the Battle but Losing the War: The Psychology of Debt Management
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Task Selection and Workload: A Focus on Completing Easy Tasks Hurts Performance
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Inkonsistenz und psychische Gesundheit: Eine Metaanalyse
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The Dynamics of Opinion Formation
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Goal achievement, subsequent user effort and the moderating role of goal difficulty
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Small Victories: Creating Intrinsic Motivation in Task Completion and Debt Repayment
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Behavioral Mechanisms Prompted by Badges: The Goal-Gradient Hypothesis
Mutter, T., & Kundisch, D. (2014) · Journal of the Association for Information Systems · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Lagzi, S., Quiroga, B. F., Romero, G., Howard, N., & Chan, T. C. Y. (2023) · Journal of Operations Management · doi:10.1002/joom.1252 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Perceived Impact as the Underpinning Mechanism of the End-Spurt and U-Shape Pacing Patterns
Emanuel, A. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01082 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Proximity to rewards modulates parameters of effortful control exertion.
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A Review of Theory and Research on Miller's Response Competition (Conflict) Models
Heilizer, F. (1977) · The Journal of General Psychology · doi:10.1080/00221309.1977.9920841 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
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Seeking Reemployment in Nonmetropolitan America
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Approach-Withdrawal Response Competition (Aw-Rc), Displacement, and Behavior Modification
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Self-citationThe resolution of approach-avoidance conflict
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A theory of behavior in a two‐valenced psychoecological space
Goude, G. (1981) · Scandinavian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9450.1981.tb00399.x
Sällberg, H. (2010) · LAP LAMBERT Academic Publishing eBooks
Michael, J., Green, A., Šipošová, B., Jensen, K., & Kita, S. (2022) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1111/cogs.13160
- Authors
- Heilizer, F.
- Affiliations
- DePaul University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Heilizer, Fred
- Venue
- The Journal of General Psychology
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 1977-07
- Volume
- 97
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 17-71
- ISSN
- 0022-1309 (ISSN-L)
- 1940-0888
- OpenAlex
- W1972345507
- Cited by
- 28
- References
- 220
- Citations by year
- 2025: 1 · 2024: 1 · 2023: 2 · 2022: 1 · 2020: 2 · 2019: 1 · 2018: 1 · 2017: 1 · 2016: 1 · 2015: 1 · 2014: 1 · 2013: 2
- FWCI
- 0.75
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- The Journal of General Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Visual perception and processing mechanisms
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Psychological Testing and Assessment
- Keywords
- response competition, stimulus dimensions, time-course effects
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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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