Restrictive Language Education Policies and Emergent Bilingual Youth: A Perfect Storm With Imperfect Outcomes

“schooling has typically remained steadfast in its monolingual orientations to language education policy and emergent bilingual students (G andara & Hopkins, 2010; Garc ıa, 2009; Menken, 2013; Wiley, 2010).”

“For example, decades of research reveal that U.S. schools have served English learners1 (ELs) poorly as evidenced by assessment scores, course-taking patterns, and measures of educational attainment such as high school graduation rates (Gándara & Contreras, 2009; Menken, 2013).”

“education has maintained a monolingual orientation in language policy and practice (Menken, 2013; Menken & Sánchez, 2019).”

“The mathematics achievement gap between ELs and non-ELs starts early, doubles from fourth to eighth grade, and leads to detrimental effects in high school and beyond, including increased risk for school failure, lower graduation rates, and unemployment (Menken, 2013; NCES, 2017; Randel, Moore, & Blair, 2008; Reardon &…”

“Thus, many schools decided to eliminate their bilingual programs in the belief that EO instruction was the best way to ensure that ELs would make yearly progress (Menken, 2013).”

“This practice shows that, officially, these schools adopted ‘restrictive ’ language policies (Darder, 2014; Kan & Adamson, 2009; Menken, 2013), guided by standard language ideologies.”

“…that silenced a part of their identities, hindering their development as bilingual beings, are rooted in schooling practices, societal perceptions of bilingualism and the concern that families have for their children’s educational experiences (Brooks 2017; Guerrero and Guerrero 2008; Menken 2013).”

“Within the U.S. context, critical language policy has typically been taken up in ways that examine restrictive language policies that frame language diversity as a threat and seek to impose English-only policies (Crawford, 2000; Menken, 2013; Olivos & Ochoa, 2008).”

“…Rumberger, 2009), (2) the sole and dominant focus on the development of English proficiency, which can be a result of high-stakes testing pressures (Menken, 2013; Menken & Solorza, 2014), and (3) teachers and district professionals' misconception of the value of being bilingual and biliterate (Cho…”

“…Arizona, and Massachusetts affected public sentiment in New York, and (b) federal education legislation, No Child Left Behind (2002), repealed the Bilingual Education Act (1968) and required school accountability based on high-stakes testing in English (Menken, 2013; Menken & Solorza, 2014).”

“Already, the United States has taken steps that address linguistic diversity in enacting policies focused on bilingual learners (see Abedi, 2004; Menken, 2013).”

“U.S. schools that generally strip Latin@ students of their cultural and linguistic heritage (Garza and Crawford 2005; Menken 2013; Valenzuela 1999) may thereby create obstacles for students meaningfully relating to learning in schools.”

“While today various programs are offering bilingual education to maintain the L1, the goal of federal education policy remains the same: use the L1 as a tool to help ELs transition into English so that they can effectively participate in the job market (Menken, 2013; Mitchell, 2016).”

“Multiple principals were acting as “everyday policy makers,” undermining Yup’ik programs through resource distribution and programming (see Menken, 2013).”

“Research evidence indicates that the quality and caliber of these services depend largely on state-level language policies that can enhance or constrain access to EL-specific instructional supports and coursework (Gándara & Hopkins, 2010; Menken, 2013).”

“These results align with Heineke et al. (2015) work in the United States of America, which found that student-teachers are unfamiliar with the local LP.”

“The high-stakes testing and accountability system, mandated by NCLB and largely reinforced by ESSA, drives statelevel regulations, and restricts local policies on school curriculum and program design, which led to the dismantling of numerous bilingual programs and popular adoption of monolingual ideology and practices…”

“This trend may reflect current policies in place that advocate for English-only instruction, beginning at the preschool level (Gándara & Hopkins, 2010; Menken, 2013), and that limit formal instruction in the home language (Spanish, in this case), particularly in new destination states.”

“The belief of the teacher reported by Santiago’s mom is not uncommon, and much research has previously reported the erroneous perception that speaking a different language at home causes problems for learning in school (Briscoe, 2014; Menken, 2013; Shim, 2014).”

“However, the activity operated with a linguistically restrictive view of bilingualism (Menken, 2013), one that relied on languages being separated in students’ practice.”

“, the vast majority of students from immigrant backgrounds receive their schooling monolingually in English as a result of language education policies that restrict the use of their home languages in schools (Baker & Wright, 2017; García, 2009; García & Sung, 2018; Menken, 2013) such that, by the third generation, imm…”

“It is also the case that MLs face additional challenges that may inhibit their academic success, such as restrictive language policies that promote English-only instruction (Menken, 2013) and racism and xenophobia (Kumi-Yeboah & Smith, 2017).”

“More states are adopting language policies as they move to meet the requirements of ESSA and monitor emergent bilingual progress toward English proficiency (Linquanti & Cook, 2015; Menken, 2013; Solórzano, 2008).”

“Within the U.S. context, critical language policy has typically been taken up in ways that examine restrictive language policies that frame language diversity as a threat and seek to impose English-Only policies (Crawford, 2000; Menken, 2013; Olivos & Ochoa, 2008).”

“However, as a practical matter, these policies are implemented inconsistently and placement issues for newly arrived EBs persist (Goodman, 2018; V. L. Marsh, 2018; Menken, 2013).”

“Unlike Menken’s (2013) study with LTELs, in which students expressed offense with being labeled as English language learners, the students in this”

“The United States has no official language, although several states have implemented English-only legislation at the state level which reflects the languageas-planning perspective (Menken 2013).”

“1Following Bale (2015), García (2009), and Menken (2013), I have adopted the term emergent bilingual to describe students who come from homes where a language other than English is spoken and, by adding English to the skills and knowledge they already possess, are becoming bi/multilingual.”

“What they all have in common is that they speak a first language other than English and are entering school systems that prioritize English-only education (Bondy, 2016; Menken, 2013).”

“Carrying forward DelgadoLarocco’s (1998) line of work, inequities in educators’ attention within two-way programs was a central gentrification theme during the 2000s, with more detailed empirical studies that found evidence to support the critique.”

“In this way, as outlined by Menken (2013), proponents of English-only instruction have argued that providing instruction in a single language contributes to a more cohesive U.S. culture.”

“Meanwhile, language and/or bilingual programs do not meet the needs of Spanish-speaking students with restrictive language policies (Menken, 2013).”

“Perhaps most alarming, while the national average of MLE graduation rates continued to increase from 2012–2016, The State’s average MLE graduation rates actually decreased from 57% (2012–2013) to 47.5% (2015–2016; USDE, 2020).”

“Studies in this field typically zoom in on a single group of actors within the language policy arena and tend to emphasize the evaluation of policies alongside the authoritative role of policymakers in the creation of language policy (Arias & Wiley, 2013; Menken, 2013; Menken & Solorza, 2014).”

“School administrators consistently identify the accountability pressures of NCLB and specifically testing in English as the main factor in their decision to eliminate bilingual programs (Menken, 2013).”

“Educators, as well as parents, community members, and legislators, must take steps to become knowledgeable with the research supporting bilingualism so that they can in turn advocate for those ELLs whose educational needs are not always met (Menken, 2013).”