Problem-Based Learning is Compatible with Human Cognitive Architecture: Commentary on Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006)
Abstract
Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006) Kirschner, P. A., Sweller, J. and Clark, R. E. 2006. Why minimal guidance during instruction does not work: An analysis of the failure of constructivist, discovery, problem-based, experiential, and inquiry-based teaching. Educational Psychologist., 41: 75–86. [Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar] suggest that unguided or minimally guided instructional approaches are less effective and efficient for novices than guided instructional approaches because they ignore the structures that constitute human cognitive architecture. While we concur with the authors on this point, we do not agree to their equation of problem-based learning with minimally guided instruction. In this commentary, we argue that problem-based learning is an instructional approach that allows for flexible adaptation of guidance, and that, contrary to Kirschner et al.'s conclusions, its underlying principles are very well compatible with the manner in which our cognitive structures are organized.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Guided learner-centered instructional approaches work for students with low prior knowledge.
“This is in line with previous research that indicates that guided learner-centered instructional approaches work for students with low prior knowledge [45,56].”
From Students as Designers of Augmented Reality: Impact on Learning and Motivation in Computer Science (2021) · cites this paper as [56]
Cites
Cognitive Load During Problem Solving: Effects on Learning
Sweller, J. (1988) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1016/0364-0213(88)90023-7 · Cited by 11,048 · see citing works
Kirschner, P. A., Sweller, J., & Clark, R. E. (2006) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1207/s15326985ep4102_1 · Cited by 6,887 · cited 8× · see citing works
“…contrary, we contend that the elements of PBL allow for flexible adaptation of guidance, making this instructional approach potentially more compatible with the manner in which our cognitive structures are organized than the direct guided instructional approach advocated by Kirschner et al. (2006).”
BackgroundInfluentialThe magical number 4 in short-term memory: A reconsideration of mental storage capacity
Cowan, N. (2001) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x01003922 · Cited by 6,779 · see citing works
Self-explanations: How students study and use examples in learning to solve problems
Chi, M. (1989) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1016/0364-0213(89)90002-5 · Cited by 2,287 · see citing works
Restructuring the Classroom: Conditions for Productive Small Groups
Cohen, E. G. (1994) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/00346543064001001 · Cited by 2,120 · see citing works
Problem-based learning in medicine and beyond: A brief overview
Barrows, H. S. (1996) · New Directions for Teaching and Learning · doi:10.1002/tl.37219966804 · Cited by 2,007 · see citing works
Effects of Problem-Based Learning: A Meta-Analysis From the Angle of Assessment
Gijbels, D., Dochy, F., Van den Bossche, P., & Segers, M. (2005) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/00346543075001027 · Cited by 917 · see citing works
van Merriënboer, J. J. G., Kester, L., & Paas, F. (2006) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.1250 · Cited by 320 · see citing works
Self-citationClarke, T., Ayres, P., & Sweller, J. (2005) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/bf02504794 · Cited by 227 · cited 1× · see citing works
“When an instructional technique or technology is used that is in itself unfamiliar, it is important to train students in it before instruction starts, in order to reduce the additional extraneous cognitive load that engaging in this technique or with this technology would bring along (cf. Clarke, Ayres, & Sweller, 200…”
Method
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Does discovery-based instruction enhance learning?
Alfieri, L., Brooks, P. J., Aldrich, N. J., & Tenenbaum, H. R. (2011) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0021017 · Cited by 1,338 · see citing works
Simulation-Based Learning in Higher Education: A Meta-Analysis
Chernikova, O., Heitzmann, N., Stadler, M., Holzberger, D., Seidel, T., & Fischer, F. (2020) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/0034654320933544 · Cited by 1,072 · see citing works
Self-Directed Learning in Problem-Based Learning and its Relationships with Self-Regulated Learning
Loyens, S. M. M., Magda, J., & Rikers, R. M. J. P. (2008) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-008-9082-7 · Cited by 882 · see citing works
Self-citationThe process of problem‐based learning: what works and why
Schmidt, H. G., Rotgans, J. I., & Yew, E. H. (2011) · Medical Education · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2923.2011.04035.x · Cited by 855 · see citing works
Self-citationKapur, M. (2016) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1080/00461520.2016.1155457 · Cited by 523 · see citing works
Why Minimally Guided Teaching Techniques Do Not Work: A Reply to Commentaries
SWELLER, J., KIRSCHNER, P. A., & CLARK, R. E. (2007) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1080/00461520701263426 · Cited by 434 · see citing works
Kirschner, F., Paas, F., & Kirschner, P. A. (2011) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.1730 · Cited by 219 · see citing works
Self-citationCognitive Load Theory: Historical Development and Relation to Other Theories
Moreno, R., & Park, B. (2010) · Cognitive Load Theory · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511844744.003 · Cited by 204 · see citing works
Collaborative learning effects when students have complete or incomplete knowledge
Retnowati, E., Ayres, P., & Sweller, J. (2018) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.3444 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Students as Designers of Augmented Reality: Impact on Learning and Motivation in Computer Science
Buchner, J., & Kerres, M. (2021) · Multimodal Technologies and Interaction · doi:10.3390/mti5080041 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Computing Education Research Today
Fincher, S. A., Tenenberg, J., Dorn, B., Hundhausen, C., McCartney, R., & Murphy, L. (2019) · The Cambridge Handbook of Computing Education Research · doi:10.1017/9781108654555.003 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
- Authors
- SCHMIDT, H. G., LOYENS, S. M. M., VAN GOG, T., & PAAS, F.
- Affiliations
- Erasmus University Rotterdam (NL)
- Open University of the Netherlands (NL)
- Venue
- Educational Psychologist
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2007-04-26
- Volume
- 42
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 91-97
- ISSN
- 0046-1520 (ISSN-L)
- 1532-6985
- OpenAlex
- W2038482098
- Cited by
- 382
- References
- 9
- Citations by year
- 2026: 5 · 2025: 23 · 2024: 14 · 2023: 13 · 2022: 16 · 2021: 17 · 2020: 13 · 2019: 58 · 2018: 25 · 2017: 25 · 2016: 26 · 2015: 24 · 2014: 23 · 2013: 23 · 2012: 23
- FWCI
- 55.59
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Educational Psychologist (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Education › Problem and Project Based Learning
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Keywords
- problem-based learning, cognitive architecture, guided teaching, constructivist teaching, discovery learning, experiential learning, inquiry-based learning, novice learners, instructional guidance
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
