Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work: An Analysis of the Failure of Constructivist, Discovery, Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based Teaching

Direct instruction involving considerable guidance, including examples, resulted in vastly more learning than discovery.

“Direct instruction involving considerable guidance, including examples, resulted in vastly more learning than discovery.”

• cites Klahr & Nigam, 2004 sourceSupported

Those relatively few students who learned via discovery showed no signs of superior quality of learning.

“Those relatively few students who learned via discovery showed no signs of superior quality of learning.”

• cites Klahr & Nigam, 2004 sourceSupported

Working memory, when processing novel information, is very limited in duration and capacity.

“Working memory has two well-known characteristics: When processing novel information, it is very limited in duration and in capacity.”

• cites Peterson & Peterson, 1959 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Miller, 1956 sourcePartly supported

  In the discussion of immediate memory (pp. 92–93), Miller says its span is limited by the number of chunks, supporting the capacity part of the claim. The paper does not establish a limit on duration, and it does not specifically frame the finding as applying when processing novel information. (LLM, conf=0.87)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

The work of Klahr and Nigam (2004) unambiguously demonstrated the advantages of direct instruction in science.

“The work of Klahr and Nigam (2004), discussed earlier, unambiguously demonstrated the advantages of direct instruction in science.”

• cites Klahr & Nigam, 2004 sourcePartly supported

  The Abstract and Discussion report a clear advantage for direct instruction over discovery learning in teaching third- and fourth-grade children to design simple, unconfounded experiments. But the claim broadens that finding to science instruction generally: among children who mastered the skill, the two groups performed equally well on broader scientific judgments, and the Discussion calls for matching instructional approaches to topic and student. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.87)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Much of the ATI work provides a clear antecedent to the expertise reversal effect, according to which instructional methods that are effective for novices become less effective as expertise increases.

“Much of this work provides a clear antecedent to the expertise reversal effect, discussed earlier, according to which instructional methods that are effective for novices become less effective as expertise increases.”

• cites Cronbach & Snow, 1977Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Kyllonen & Lajoie, 2003 sourcePartly supported

  The Woltz Article section reports that stronger treatments benefited less able learners, whereas weaker treatments benefited more able learners—an ATI pattern that could be viewed as an antecedent. It does not specifically discuss novices becoming experts or identify an expertise reversal effect, and it describes the ATI findings as somewhat inconsistent. No page number is available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.83)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Snow, Corno, & Jackson, 1996Not checked — no full text of the source

Constructivist approaches to instruction are based, in part, on a concern that individual differences moderate the impact of instruction.

“Constructivist approaches to instruction are based, in part, on a concern that individual differences moderate the impact of instruction.”

• cites Cronbach & Snow, 1977Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Kyllonen & Lajoie, 2003 sourcePartly supported

  The THEMES section describes aptitude–treatment interactions and says instruction should accommodate individual learners’ aptitudes. That supports the concern that individual differences affect how instruction works, but the paper does not connect that concern specifically to constructivist approaches. No page number is available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.85)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Snow, Corno, & Jackson, 1996Not checked — no full text of the source

For novices, studying worked examples seems invariably superior to discovering or constructing a solution to a problem.

“For novices, studying worked examples seems invariably superior to discovering or constructing a solution to a problem.”

The set of differently named but similar instructional approaches requiring minimal guidance are disconnected from much that we know of human cognition.

“The result is a set of differently named but similar instructional approaches requiring minimal guidance that are disconnected from much that we know of human cognition.”

We are skillful in an area because our long-term memory contains huge amounts of information concerning the area.

“We are skillful in an area because our long-term memory contains huge amounts of information concerning the area.”

Controlled experiments almost uniformly indicate that when dealing with novel information, learners should be explicitly shown what to do and how to do it.

“Controlled experiments almost uniformly indicate that when dealing with novel information, learners should be explicitly shown what to do and how to do it.”

There is a growing body of research showing that students learn more deeply from strongly guided learning than from discovery.

“Moreno (2004) concluded that there is a growing body of research showing that students learn more deeply from strongly guided learning than from discovery.”

• cites Moreno, 2004 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

A number of reviews of empirical studies have established a solid research-based case against the use of instruction with minimal guidance.

“A number of reviews of empirical studies have established a solid research-based case against the use of instruction with minimal guidance.”

The worked-example effect has been replicated on numerous occasions using a large variety of learners studying an equally large variety of materials.

“Since those early demonstrations of the effect, it has been replicated on numerous occasions using a large variety of learners studying an equally large variety of materials”

• cites Carroll, 1994 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Paas, 1992 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Pillay, 1994 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Problem-solving search is an inefficient way of altering long-term memory because its function is to find a problem solution, not alter long-term memory.

“Problem-solving search is an inefficient way of altering long-term memory because its function is to find a problem solution, not alter long-term memory.”

It is possible to search for extended periods of time with quite minimal alterations to long-term memory.

“Indeed, it is possible to search for extended periods of time with quite minimal alterations to long-term memory (e.g., see Sweller, Mawer, & Howe, 1982).”

• cites Sweller, Mawer, & Howe, 1982 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Cognitive load theory suggests that the free exploration of a highly complex environment may generate a heavy working memory load that is detrimental to learning.

“cognitive load theory suggests that the free exploration of a highly complex environment may generate a heavy working memory load that is detrimental to learning.”

• cites Mayer, 2001 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Paas, Renkl, & Sweller, 2003 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Sweller, 1999Not checked — no full text of the source

Long-term memory is the central, dominant structure of human cognition.

“Rather, long-term memory is now viewed as the central, dominant structure of human cognition.”

• cites De Groot, 1945/1965Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Chase & Simon, 1973 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Inquiry-based instruction requires the learner to search a problem space for problem-relevant information.

“Inquiry-based instruction requires the learner to search a problem space for problem-relevant information.”

Expert problem solvers derive their skill by drawing on extensive experience stored in long-term memory and then quickly select and apply the best procedures for solving problems.

“These results suggest that expert problem solvers derive their skill by drawing on the extensive experience stored in their long-term memory and then quickly select and apply the best procedures for solving problems.”

Constructivism is based on an observation that, although descriptively accurate, does not lead to a prescriptive instructional design theory or to effective pedagogical techniques.

“Constructivism is based therefore, on an observation that, although descriptively accurate, does not lead to a prescriptive instructional design theory or to effective pedagogical techniques”

• cites Clark & Estes, 1998Not checked — no full text of the source
• cites Clark & Estes, 1999Not checked — no full text of the source
• cites Estes & Clark, 1999Not checked — no full text of the source

Algebra students learned more studying algebra worked examples than solving the equivalent problems.

“The worked-example effect was first demonstrated by Sweller and Cooper (1985) and Cooper and Sweller (1987), who found that algebra students learned more studying algebra worked examples than solving the equivalent problems.”

• cites Sweller & Cooper, 1985 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Cooper & Sweller, 1987 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Almost all information stored in working memory and not rehearsed is lost within 30 sec.

“We have known at least since Peterson and Peterson (1959) that almost all information stored in working memory and not rehearsed is lost within 30 sec”

• cites Peterson & Peterson, 1959 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

When dealing with previously learned information stored in long-term memory, the limitations of working memory disappear.

“In contrast, when dealing with previously learned information stored in long-term memory, these limitations disappear.”

Minimally guided instruction is less effective and less efficient than instructional approaches that place a strong emphasis on guidance of the student learning process.

“Although unguided or minimally guided instructional approaches are very popular and intuitively appealing, the point is made that these approaches ignore both the structures that constitute human cognitive architecture and evidence from empirical studies over the past half-century that consistently indicate that minimally guided instruction is less effective and less efficient than instructional”

• Also stated in: § Abstract · boosted

  “The past half-century of empirical research on this issue has provided overwhelming and unambiguous evidence that minimal guidance during instruction is significantly less effective and efficient than guidance specifically designed to support the cognitive processing necessary for learning.”

This suggestion is particularly important in the case of novice learners, who lack proper schemas to integrate the new information with their prior knowledge.

“This suggestion is particularly important in the case of novice learners, who lack proper schemas to integrate the new information with their prior knowledge.”

The worked-example effect provides some of the strongest evidence for the superiority of directly guided instruction over minimal guidance.

“Accordingly, the worked-example effect, which has been replicated a number of times, provides some of the strongest evidence for the superiority of directly guided instruction over minimal guidance.”

Because students learn so little from a constructivist approach, most teachers who attempt to implement classroom-based constructivist instruction end up providing students with considerable guidance.

“Because students learn so little from a constructivist approach, most teachers who attempt to implement classroom-based constructivist instruction end up providing students with considerable guidance.”

All problem-based searching makes heavy demands on working memory.

“All problem-based searching makes heavy demands on working memory.”

The limitations of working memory only apply to new, yet to be learned information that has not been stored in long-term memory.

“The limitations of working memory only apply to new, yet to be learned information that has not been stored in long-term memory.”

• cites Sweller, 2003 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Sweller, 2004 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Everything we see, hear, and think about is critically dependent on and influenced by our long-term memory.

“Everything we see, hear, and think about is critically dependent on and influenced by our long-term memory.”

The worked-example effect occurs when learners required to solve problems perform worse on subsequent test problems than learners who study the equivalent worked examples.

“The worked-example effect, which is based on cognitive load theory, occurs when learners required to solve problems perform worse on subsequent test problems than learners who study the equivalent worked examples.”

Problem solving, which is central to inquiry-based instruction, places a huge burden on working memory.

“We know that problem solving, which is central to one instructional procedure advocating minimal guidance, called inquiry-based instruction, places a huge burden on working memory (Sweller, 1988).”

• cites Sweller, 1988 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Recommendations advocating minimal guidance during instruction proceed as though working memory does not exist or has no relevant limitations when dealing with novel information.

“Recommendations advocating minimal guidance during instruction proceed as though working memory does not exist or, if it does exist, that it has no relevant limitations when dealing with novel information, the very information of interest to constructivist teaching procedures.”

Any instructional procedure that ignores the structures that constitute human cognitive architecture is not likely to be effective.

“Any instructional procedure that ignores the structures that constitute human cognitive architecture is not likely to be effective.”

There are no known limits to the amount of previously learned information that can be brought into working memory from long-term memory.

“Similarly, there are no known limits to the amount of such information that can be brought into working memory from long-term memory.”

Clark (1989) reviewed approximately 70 ATI studies and described experiments in which lower aptitude students who choose or were assigned to unguided, weaker instructional treatments receive significantly lower scores on posttests than on pretest measures.

“He reviewed approximately 70 ATI studies and described a number of experiments in which lower aptitude students who choose or were assigned to unguided, weaker instructional treatments receive significantly lower scores on posttests than on pretest measures.”

• cites Clark, 1989Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Students learn to recognize which moves are required for particular problems, the basis for the acquisition of problem-solving schemas.

“Students learn to recognize which moves are required for particular problems, the basis for the acquisition of problem-solving schemas (Chi, Glaser, & Rees, 1982).”

• cites Chi, Glaser, & Rees, 1982Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

A series of reviews by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences has described results of experiments that provide evidence for the negative consequences of unguided science instruction at all age levels and across a variety of science and math content.

“A series of reviews by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences has recently described the results of experiments that provide evidence for the negative consequences of unguided science instruction at all age levels and across a variety of science and math content.”

• cites McCray, DeHaan, and Schuck (2003)Not checked — no full text of the source
• cites Gollub, Berthanthal, Labov, and Curtis (2003)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Kilpatrick, Swafford, and Findell (2001)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Teachers have found that discovery learning is successful only when students have prerequisite knowledge and undergo some prior structured experiences.

“Roblyer, Edwards, and Havriluk (1997) reported that teachers have found that discovery learning is successful only when students have prerequisite knowledge and undergo some prior structured experiences.”

• cites Roblyer, Edwards, and Havriluk (1997)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The worked-example effect is not obtainable when the worked examples are themselves structured in a manner that imposes a heavy cognitive load.

“First, it is not obtainable when the worked examples are themselves structured in a manner that imposes a heavy cognitive load.”

• cites Tarmizi & Sweller, 1988 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Ward & Sweller, 1990 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The availability of a process worksheet had positive effects on learning task performance, indicated by a higher coherence and more accurate content of the legal case being developed.

“Nadolski, Kirschner, and van Merriënboer (2005), for example, studied the effects of process worksheets with law students and found that the availability of a process worksheet had positive effects on learning task performance, indicated by a higher coherence and more accurate content of the legal case being developed.”

• cites Nadolski, Kirschner, & van Merriënboer, 2005 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Problem-solving search can function perfectly with no learning whatsoever.

“Indeed, problem-solving search can function perfectly with no learning whatsoever (Sweller, 1988).”

• cites Sweller, 1988 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The worked-example effect first disappears and then reverses as the learners' expertise increases.

“Second, the worked-example effect first disappears and then reverses as the learners' expertise increases.”

• cites Kalyuga, Chandler, Tuovinen, & Sweller, 2001 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

When learners are asked to select between a more or a less unguided version of the same course, less able learners who choose less guided approaches tend to like the experience even though they learn less from it.

“Even more distressing is the evidence Clark (1982) presented that when learners are asked to select between a more or a less unguided version of the same course, less able learners who choose less guided approaches tend to like the experience even though they learn less from it.”

• cites Clark, 1982 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Problem solving only becomes relatively effective when learners are sufficiently experienced so that studying a worked example is, for them, a redundant activity that increases working memory load compared to generating a known solution.

“Problem solving only becomes relatively effective when learners are sufficiently experienced so that studying a worked example is, for them, a redundant activity that increases working memory load compared to generating a known solution”

• cites Kalyuga, Chandler, Tuovinen, & Sweller, 2001 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The failure to provide strong learning support for less experienced or less able students could actually produce a measurable loss of learning.

“He argued that the failure to provide strong learning support for less experienced or less able students could actually produce a measurable loss of learning.”

• cites Clark, 1989Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Learners can engage in problem-solving activities for extended periods and learn almost nothing.

“As a consequence, learners can engage in problem-solving activities for extended periods and learn almost nothing (Sweller et al., 1982).”

• cites Sweller et al., 1982 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Guidance can be relaxed only with increased expertise as knowledge in long-term memory can take over from external guidance.

“That guidance can be relaxed only with increased expertise as knowledge in long-term memory can take over from external guidance.”

Learners receiving guidance through process worksheets outperformed learners left to discover the appropriate procedures themselves.

“Learners receiving guidance through process worksheets outperformed learners left to discover the appropriate procedures themselves.”

• cites Nadolski, Kirschner, & van Merriënboer, 2005 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Even for students with considerable prior knowledge, strong guidance while learning is most often found to be equally effective as unguided approaches.

“Even for students with considerable prior knowledge, strong guidance while learning is most often found to be equally effective as unguided approaches.”

Schemata guide the selection of relevant information and the screening out of irrelevant information.

“Schemata accomplish this by guiding the selection of relevant information and the screening out of irrelevant information.”

• cites cognitive researchNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Knowledge organization and schema acquisition are more important for the development of expertise than the use of particular methods of problem solving.

“According to Elstein (1994) knowledge organization and schema acquisition are more important for the development of expertise than the use of particular methods of problem solving.”

• cites Elstein (1994) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

After a half-century of advocacy associated with instruction using minimal guidance, there is no body of research supporting the technique.

“After a half-century of advocacy associated with instruction using minimal guidance, it appears that there is no body of research supporting the technique.”

In solving clinical problems, subjects must attend to the current diagnostic hypothesis, the data in the problem presented to them, and any intermediate hypothesis between the diagnosis and the patient data.

“In solving clinical problems, subjects must attend to the current diagnostic hypothesis, the data in the problem presented to them, and any intermediate hypothesis between the diagnosis and the patient data (e.g., a pathophysiological process underlying the signs and symptoms).”

Something in PBL may hinder the development of the forward reasoning pattern.

“This finding means that something in PBL may hinder the development of the forward reasoning pattern.”

Students trained in a PBL curriculum failed to separate basic science knowledge from the specific clinical knowledge associated with particular patients.

“They showed that students trained in a PBL curriculum failed to separate basic science knowledge from the specific clinical knowledge associated with particular patients.”

• cites Patel, Groen, and Norman (1993) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Teaching basic science within a clinical context may have the disadvantage that once basic science knowledge is contextualized, it is difficult to separate it from the particular clinical problems into which it has been integrated.

“In the medical domain, Patel, Groen, and Norman (1993) showed that teaching basic science within a clinical context may have the disadvantage that once basic science knowledge is contextualized, it is difficult to separate it from the particular clinical problems into which it has been integrated.”

• cites Patel, Groen, and Norman (1993) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Experts use schema-based pattern recognition to determine the cause of a patient's illness.

“Experts use schema-based pattern recognition to determine the cause of a patient's illness.”

• cites Elstein (1994) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

In so far as there is any evidence from controlled studies, it almost uniformly supports direct, strong instructional guidance rather than constructivist-based minimal guidance during the instruction of novice to intermediate learners.

“In so far as there is any evidence from controlled studies, it almost uniformly supports direct, strong instructional guidance rather than constructivist-based minimal guidance during the instruction of novice to intermediate learners.”

To achieve expertise in a domain, learners must acquire the necessary schemata that allow them to meaningfully and efficiently interpret information and identify the problem structure.

“In this regard, cognitive research has shown that to achieve expertise in a domain, learners must acquire the necessary schemata that allow them to meaningfully and efficiently interpret information and identify the problem structure.”

• cites cognitive researchNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

If more than one hypothesis has been generated, the cognitive resources needed for maintaining this information in working memory must be such that few cognitive resources are left for acquiring the problem schema.

“If we consider that more than one hypothesis has been generated, the cognitive resources needed for maintaining this information in working memory must be such that few cognitive resources are left for acquiring the problem schema.”