New drivers of conflict in Nigeria: an analysis of the clashes between farmers and pastoralists

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Interview data revealed that the BVN has made it difficult for political office holders to hide illicit wealth, and several accounts linked to politicians and their cronies with allegedly stolen funds have been frozen since its introduction.

“Interview data revealed that the BVN has made it difficult for political office holders to hide illicit wealth 29 and several accounts linked to politicians and their cronies with allegedly stolen funds have been frozen since its introduction.30”

• cites [29] 29. Arriola, Leonardo. "Patronage and Political Stability in Africa" Comparative Political Studies 42, no. 10 (2009): 1339-1362 BBC. "Nigeria's Benue clashes: Mass burial after farmer-Fulani clashes" 11 January 2018. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-42648492 (Accessed 12 December 2018) sourceCould not verify

  Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 0 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 2 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [30] 30. Berman, Bruce. "Ethnicity, Patronage and the African State: The Politics of Uncivil Nationalism" African Affairs 97, no. 388 (1998): 305-341 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

There has been a significant increase in the numbers of cattle rustled in the last decade, resulting in the death of not only traditional pastoralists but also farmers, security agents and other citizens.

“There has been a significant increase in the numbers of cattle rustled in the last decade resulting in the death of not only traditional pastoralists but also farmers, security agents and other citizens.”

May combine two claims.

While many traditional pastoralists in Nigeria still herd cattle with sticks, several pastoralists have been seen with SALW and some have been accused of being involved in cattle rustling.

“While many traditional pastoralists could still be seen in Nigeria herding cattle with sticks, several pastoralists have been seen with SALW and some of them have been accused of being involved in cattle rustling.52”

• cites [52] 52. Joseph, Richard. "Class, State, and Prebendal Politics in Nigeria." The Journal of Commonwealth & Comparative Politics 21, no. 3 (1983): 21-38. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Over 30 million dormant accounts have been identified since the introduction of BVN in Nigeria.

“Over 30 million dormant accounts have been identified since the introduction of BVN in Nigeria. 32”

• cites [32] 32. Charlene, Cabot. "Climate change and Farmer-Herder conflicts in West Africa". In, Climate change, Security risks and conflict reduction in Africa: A study of Farmer-Herder conflicts over natural resources in Cote d Ivoire, Ghana and Burkina Faso 1960-2000. Springer- Berlin, 2017Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

An adult cow in Nigeria could cost as much as N350,000 ($1000), making cattle lucrative for potential investors.

“An adult cow in Nigeria could cost as much as N350,000 ($1000) and this makes it lucrative for potential investors.23”

• cites [23] 23. Adetoro Adenrele. "Boko Haram Insurgency in Nigeria as a symptom of poverty and political alienation" IOSR Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences 3, no. 5 (2012): 20-26.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

A security analyst explained that many politicians in Nigeria have resorted to the use of cash to avoid being monitored since the introduction of the BVN, and illegally acquired funds have been channelled into agriculture with a substantive amount used to purchase cattle.

“In another interview with a security analyst in Northern Nigeria, he explained that many politicians in Nigeria have resorted to the use of cash in order to avoid being monitored since the introduction of the BVN.He explained further that illegally acquired funds have been channelled into agriculture with a 'substantive amount' used to purchase cattle.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Expert interviews revealed that many people who had hidden huge sums of money in Nigerian banks prior to the introduction of BVN hurriedly withdrew these monies to avoid being detected.

“Expert interviews revealed that many people who had hidden huge sums of money in Nigerian banks prior to the introduction of BVN hurriedly withdrew these monies to avoid being detected.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

A senior banking officer reported a surge in cash withdrawn from branches before the BVN deadline, with some people preferring to withdraw money rather than apply for a BVN.

“Some weeks before the expiration of the deadline for people to get their BVN, we observed a surge in the amount of cash withdrawn from many of our branches across the country.Rather than apply for a BVN, some people preferred to withdraw their money but I cannot ascertain if these were stolen or illegally acquired money'.33”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted). May combine two claims.

A security expert stated that since the introduction of BVN, there has been an increase in the number of people using stolen wealth to purchase cattle, and that the lack of a mechanism for identifying cattle ownership makes it easy to buy hundreds of cows, leading to an artificial increase in cattle prices and a security risk because herders are often armed.

“Since the introduction of BVN, we have seen an increase in the number of people using stolen wealth to purchase cattle.When you consider the fact that an adult cow sells for between 200,000-400,000 naira ($600-$1100: 2019 prices), and there is no mechanism for identifying cattle ownership, it is easy for people to buy hundreds of cows which translates into millions of naira.This has even led to an”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The national secretary of Miyetti Allah cattle breeders association of Nigeria stated that if you see a Fulani man handling an AK-47, it is because cattle rustling has become so much that one wonders if there is security in the country.

“The national secretary of Miyetti Allah cattle breeders association of Nigeria (One of the largest pastoralist groups in the country) stated 'If you see a Fulani man handling AK-47, that is because cattle rustling has become so much that one wonders if there is security in the country'.54”

• cites [54] 54. King, Norman. "Conflict Management among the Farmers and Pastoralists in Tanzania"; International SAMANM Journal of Business and Social Science 1, no 2 (2013)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Traditional average herd size ranges from 16 to 69, while herds linked to neo-pastoralism typically range between 50 and 1000 and often involve the use of weapons by hired herdsmen.

“While traditional average herd size ranges from 16-69, 19 herds linked to neo-patrimonialism typically range between 50 and 1000 20 and often involves the use of weapons by the hired herdsmen.”

• cites [19] 19. Akpeji, Wantu and Ande Emmanuel, "Fulani leaders ask herdsmen to boycott anti-grazing bill hearing" 87 Erunke, "Why Nigerian Fulani won't accept ranching-Miyetti Allah" 88 Vanguard Newspaper, "Plateau Massacre, retaliation for lost 300 cows-Miyetti Allah" 89 Punch Newspaper, "Miyetti Allah is like Afenifere, Ohanaeze, Presidency says" Bibliography A Carl LeVan. "Reciprocal retaliation and local linkage: Federalism as an instrument of opposition organizing in Nigeria." African Affairs 117, no. 466 (2018): 1-20 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [20] 20. Abbass Isah mohammed. "No retreat no surrender conflict for survival between Fulani pastoralists and farmers in northern Nigeria." European Scientific Journal 8, no 1 (2012): 331-346Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Other interviewees agree that the steady increase in the value of cattle has opened up the industry to non-traditional pastoralists, with many using it for money laundering.

“Other interviewees agree that the steady increase in the value of cattle has opened up the industry to non-traditional pastoralists with many using it for money laundering.”

May combine two claims.

More recently, there have been complaints that the sizes of the herds are larger, the pastoralists are unknown to the farmers, and they are armed with dangerous weapons.

“More recently, there have been complaints that the sizes of the herds are larger, the pastoralists are unknown to the farmers and armed with dangerous weapons.”

May combine two claims.

There is strong evidence that sections of the pastoralist communities are fully armed and now operate like militias.

“There is strong evidence that sections of the pastoralist communities are fully armed and now operate like militias, for instance, a leader of the pastoralist community in an interview boasted that his group has successfully carried out attacks in several farming communities in Northern Nigeria.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The commissioner for police in Kano state explained in an interview that many of the armed pastoralists arrested were from countries such as Senegal, Mali and Chad.

“The commissioner for police in Kano state explained in an interview that many of the armed pastoralists arrested were from countries such as Senegal, Mali and Chad.73”

• cites [73] 73. Olusola Fabiyi, Olaleye Aluko and Charles John. "Benue: Killer herdsmen are sponsored, says military. The Punch Newspaper, 27 April 2019, https://punchng.com/benue-killer- herdsmen-are-sponsored-says-military/ (Accessed 5 July 2020)Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

The Berom ethnic group in Plateau state have never hidden their disdain for the pastoralists and have sometimes resorted to killing pastoralists' cattle to prevent them from grazing on their lands; this has led to reprisals by the pastoralists resulting in the killing of hundreds of people in Berom communities.

“For instance, the Berom ethnic group in Plateau state (One of the largest ethnic groups in the region) have never hidden their disdain for the pastoralists and have sometimes resorted to killing pastoralists' cattle to prevent them from grazing on their lands.This has led to reprisals by the pastoralists resulting in the killing of hundreds of people in Berom communities.74”

• cites [74] 74. Onwughalu, Vincent and Obiorah, Collins. "Voluntary policing and the containment of Herders-Farmers conflicts in Nigeria". 5th Annual Conference of Nigerian Political Science Association (NPSA) South East Zone, on State, Security and Economy in Nigeria, April 2018.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Recent developments show that many traditional pastoralists now bear weapons too.

“Recent developments show that many traditional pastoralists now bear weapons too.”

May combine two claims.

Data from the Centre for Democracy and Development indicates that the North Central region of Nigeria witnessed the highest number of clashes (140 clashes and 1,098 fatalities in 2018), while the South West region witnessed the highest number of clashes recorded in the Southern part of the country.

“For instance, data obtained from the Centre for Democracy and Development (CDD) indicates that the North Central region of Nigeria witnessed the highest number of clashes (140 clashes and 1,098 fatalities in 2018) while the South West region witnessed the highest number of clashes recorded in the Southern part of the country.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted).

A military officer argued that poor pastoralists with little herds cannot afford automatic rifles and the type of arms used by the assailants.

“In an interview with a military officer, he argued that poor pastoralists with little herds cannot afford automatic rifles and the type of arms used by the assailants.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The Nigerian military stated that the pastoralists involved in violent attacks on farmers are 'sponsored' and are not traditional pastoralists.

“This claim was corroborated by the Nigerian military stating that the pastoralists involved in violent attacks on farmers are 'sponsored' and are not traditional pastoralists.72”

• cites [72] 72. Okoli, Al Chukwuma and Atelhe, George. "Nomads against Natives: A Political Ecology of Herder/Farmer Conflicts in Nasarawa State, Nigeria" American International Journal of Contemporary Research 4, no. 2 (2014): 76-88Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

After protracted attacks by pastoralists in Taraba state, the federal government deployed soldiers to affected communities to prevent further attacks; despite the deployment, several attacks were still carried out with sophisticated weapons including machine guns.

“After protracted attacks by pastoralists in the state, the federal government deployed soldiers to the affected communities to prevent further attacks.Despite the deployment of troops in the affected communities, several attacks were still carried out with sophisticated weapons including machine guns.”

May combine two claims.

Although many mainstream media in Nigeria assert that pastoralists are the aggressors in most of the conflicts, research interviews reveal that some of the attacks are revenge for the killings of pastoralists' cattle.

“Although many mainstream media in Nigeria assert that pastoralists are the aggressors in most of the conflicts, research interviews reveal that some of the attacks are revenge for the killings of pastoralists' cattle.”

May combine two claims.

Traditional pastoralism is gradually giving way to more sophisticated, arms-fuelled cattle ownership, labelled neo-pastoralism, which is prevalent in semi-urban areas of Northern Nigeria.

“Traditional pastoralism is gradually giving way to more sophisticated (arms fuelled) cattle ownership which has been labelled neo-pastoralism and is prevalent in semi-urban areas of Northern Nigeria.”

May combine two claims.

In response to increasing attacks on farmers, several farming communities have either formed vigilantes to prevent attacks on their communities or launched counter-attacks on pastoralist communities, further increasing animosity between the groups.

“In response to increasing attacks on farmers, several farming communities have either formed vigilantes to prevent attacks on their communities or launched counter-attacks on pastoralist communities' further increasing animosity between the groups.75”

• cites [75] 75. Ousman, Tall. "Herders vs Farmers: Resolving deadly conflict in the Sahel and West Africa". Sahel and West Africa Club (SWAC/OECD), 2018 Oxfam Research Reports. "The Human cost of uncontrolled arms in Africa: Cross-national research on seven African countries" March 2017.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Another respondent stated that traditional pastoralists cannot afford the price of an AK47 which is sold for N400,000-N500,000 ($1,200-$1,500) in the black market in Nigeria.

“Another respondent stated that traditional pastoralists cannot afford the price of an AK47 which is sold for N400,000 -N500,000 ($1,200-$1,500) in the black market in Nigeria.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

The Chairman of Ussa Local Government Council of Taraba state, Mr. Rimamsikwe Karma, stated that the pastoralists involved in the attacks on farmers are not the regular pastoralists they had known, and that they are 'strange'.

“The Chairman of Ussa Local Government Council of Taraba state, Mr. Rimamsikwe Karma, stated that the pastoralists involved in the attacks on farmers are not the regular pastoralists they had known, stating that they are 'strange'.”

May combine two claims.

There has been an increase in the intensity and frequency of conflicts among pastoral groups and between farmers and pastoralists, resulting in a change in the dynamics of the conflicts.

“Although conflicts among pastoral groups 2 and between farmers and pastoralists are not new and have occurred for centuries 3 with the former being more pronounced 4 , there has been an increase in the intensity and frequency resulting in a change in the dynamics of the conflicts.”

• cites [2] 2. IIED, "Farmer-Herder Conflict in Sub-Saharan Africa"; FAOSTAT, Livestock and Livelihood Spotlight: Nigeria-Cattle and Poultry Sectors 10 Although several issues have been identified by many scholars as being responsible for a surge in the violence, issues relating to climate change and desertification top the list. See Medugu et al, " Assessing the vulnerability of farmers, fishermen and herdsmen to climate change"; Reuveny, "Climate change-induced migration and violent conflict"; Podesta and Ogden, "The Security Implications of Climate Change"; Mohammed, "No retreat no surrender"; Adekola,Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites [3] 3. De Bruijn M. & van Dijk H. "Changing population mobility in West Africa." 19 Kubkomawa, "Indigenous Breeds of Cattle" 20 FAO. "Livestock and Environment Spotlight Cattle and Poultry Sectors in Nigeria". 21 Luizza, " African herders have been pushed into destitution and crime" 22 Interview with pastoral expert at International Institute for Environment and Development 23Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites [4] 4. Ajala, "Why clashes are on the rise between farmers and herdsmen in the Sahel."; Nigerian price, "Prices of cows in Nigeria" 24 The main reason for the higher prices in the south is because of the transportation cost as well as the profit derived by middlemen. Cattle are often purchased directly from pastoralists in Northern Nigeria.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Conflicts among pastoral groups and between farmers and pastoralists are not new and have occurred for centuries, with conflicts among pastoral groups being more pronounced.

“Although conflicts among pastoral groups 2 and between farmers and pastoralists are not new and have occurred for centuries 3 with the former being more pronounced 4 , there has been an increase in the intensity and frequency resulting in a change in the dynamics of the conflicts.”

• cites [2] 2. IIED, "Farmer-Herder Conflict in Sub-Saharan Africa"; FAOSTAT, Livestock and Livelihood Spotlight: Nigeria-Cattle and Poultry Sectors 10 Although several issues have been identified by many scholars as being responsible for a surge in the violence, issues relating to climate change and desertification top the list. See Medugu et al, " Assessing the vulnerability of farmers, fishermen and herdsmen to climate change"; Reuveny, "Climate change-induced migration and violent conflict"; Podesta and Ogden, "The Security Implications of Climate Change"; Mohammed, "No retreat no surrender"; Adekola,Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites [3] 3. De Bruijn M. & van Dijk H. "Changing population mobility in West Africa." 19 Kubkomawa, "Indigenous Breeds of Cattle" 20 FAO. "Livestock and Environment Spotlight Cattle and Poultry Sectors in Nigeria". 21 Luizza, " African herders have been pushed into destitution and crime" 22 Interview with pastoral expert at International Institute for Environment and Development 23Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites [4] 4. Ajala, "Why clashes are on the rise between farmers and herdsmen in the Sahel."; Nigerian price, "Prices of cows in Nigeria" 24 The main reason for the higher prices in the south is because of the transportation cost as well as the profit derived by middlemen. Cattle are often purchased directly from pastoralists in Northern Nigeria.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Cattle rustling was often organised by community leaders who managed the whole process, including compensation to communities where raids had taken place.

“Furthermore, cattle rustling was often organised by community leaders who managed the whole process (often with strict laws of engagement), including compensation to communities where the raids have taken place.6”

• cites [6] 6. Catley and Aklilu, "Moving up or moving out?" 36 Little, " Absentee herd owners and part-time pastoralists" 37 Field interviews carried out in 2017 in Nigeria 38 Triche, "Pastoral Conflict in Kenya" 39 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Conflicts between pastoral groups sometimes arise from cattle rustling or raiding and were previously used for specific purposes such as replenishing family herds after prolonged droughts or disease outbreaks, for marriage rites, or to settle scores between pastoral communities.

“Conflicts between pastoral groups sometimes arise as a result of cattle rustling or raiding and were previously used for specific purposes such as replenishing family herds after prolonged droughts or disease outbreaks, for marriage rites or to settle scores between pastoral communities.5”

• cites [5] 5. Pulse Nigeria, "This is why Governor stormed banks with thugs": See also; The Nation Nigeria, "Revealed: How $22.3m hit Jonathan's wife's accounts." 31 Nigeria Communications Week, "Fear of BVN" 32 Ibid ; See also Premium times Nigeria, 'Amidst anti-corruption war, BVN, bank customers reduce across Nigeria' 33 Interview with senior banking officer, Lagos state 34 Interview with security expert in Maiduguri, December 2017; Thousands of cattle in Nigeria are owned by non-pastoralists who arm the herders. See Niyi Akinnaso, 'Who are the cattle owners in Nigeria?' ; See also PM News, 'Most NigeNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

The use of arms by pastoralists has increased, and this increase can be attributed to three main factors: increased conflicts between pastoral groups, increased conflict between pastoralists and sedentary farmers, and increased cattle rustling and the resulting need for protection against rustlers.

“The increase in the use of arms by pastoralists can be attributed to three main factors: First, an increase in conflicts between pastoral groups, second is an increase in conflict between pastoralists and sedentary farmers and third, an increase in cattle rustling and the resultant need for protection against rustlers.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

As at March 2017, an estimated 100 million SALW were present in crisis zones around the world with Africa hosting a large percentage of these weapons.

“As at March 2017, an estimated 100 million SALW were present in crisis zones around the world with Africa hosting a large percentage of these weapons.50”

• cites [50] 50. International Crises Group. "Herders against Farmers: Nigeria's expanding deadly conflict" Africa/Report No 252, 19 September 2017 International Crises Group. "Herders against farmers: Nigeria's expanding deadly conflict". Report No 252/Africa, 19 September 2017, https://www.crisisgroup.org/africa/west- africa/nigeria/252-herders-against-farmers-nigerias-expanding-deadly-conflict (Accessed 12 December 2018)Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The Central Bank of Nigeria stated that some billions of Naira and millions of other foreign currencies are trapped in some banks' accounts which owners suddenly stopped operating.

“The Central Bank of Nigeria stated that 'some billions of Naira and millions of other foreign currencies are trapped in some banks' accounts which owners suddenly stopped operating' 31 .”

• cites [31] 31. Catley, Andy and Aklilu, Yacob "Moving up or moving out? Commercialization, growth and destitution in pastoralists areas. eds, in Andy Catley, Jeremy Lind and Ian Scoones, Pastoralism and Development in Africa: Dynamic Change at the Margins, 2013, Routledge: sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Arms are trafficked to Nigeria and other countries via the Central African Republic (CAR) corridor through a highly diversified range of trafficking dynamics.

“Arms are trafficked to Nigeria and other countries via the Central African Republic (CAR) corridor through a 'highly diversified range of trafficking dynamics'.47”

• cites [47] 47. Hutchinson, R.A. "Stock and Methods of Animal Husbandry." In Agriculture and Land Use in Ghana, edited by B. Wills. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1962.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In 2014, the Nigerian government introduced a Bank Verification Number (BVN) as a measure to curb corruption, especially money laundering.

“In 2014, one of the measures introduced by the government to curb corruption especially money laundering was the introduction of a Bank Verification Number (BVN).”

• cites [27] 27. Akinyemi, Temitope and Olaniyan, Azeez. "Nigeria: Climate War and farmer-herder conflicts" Conflict Studies Quarterly, no. 21 (2017): 3-21Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

A key conclusion of the panel is that trafficking from Libya was fuelling conflict, insecurity and terrorism in several countries in Africa.

“A key conclusion of the panel is that trafficking from Libya was fuelling conflict, insecurity and terrorism in several countries in Africa.48”

• cites [48] 48. Ibekwe, Nicholas. "How Nigerian govt. is fuelling conflict between Nigeria's Fulani herdsmen, host communities -Report" Premium Times Nigeria, 21 October 2015Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

In addition to climate change, armed conflicts, trafficking and terrorism have led to increased arms proliferation, increased cattle rustling and decreased grazing areas respectively.

“In addition to climate change, other factors such as armed conflicts, trafficking and terrorism have also led to increased arms proliferations, increased cattle rustling and decreased grazing areas respectively.12”

• cites [12] 12. See King, " Conflict Management among the Farmers and Pastoralists in Tanzania"; Makinta, Hamisu, and Bello, "Influence of Traditional Institutions in Farmer-herder Conflicts Management in Borno State, Nigeria"; These claims were corroborated when I interviewed farmers and pastoralists in the case study areas with one of the farmers stating that some herdsmen even offer payment for grazing on his harvested stocks. 59 Davidheiser and Luna, "From Complementarity to Conflict" 60 Ibid 61 Ibid, 79Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

According to the Armed Conflict Location & Event Data Project (ACLED), the clashes in Nigeria and the resultant fatalities surpass those of the other countries.

“According to the Armed Conflict Location & Event Data Project (ACLED), the clashes in Nigeria and the resultant fatalities surpass those of the other countries.”

• cites ACLEDNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

A United Nations Security Council panel of experts on the Libyan conflict stated that the uprising in Libya has led to unprecedented arms proliferation not only in neighbouring countries but throughout the continent.

“A panel of experts formed by the United Nations Security Council on the Libyan conflict stated that the uprising in Libya has led to unprecedented arms proliferation not only in neighbouring countries but throughout the continent.46”

• cites [46] 46. Homer-Dixton, T.F. Environment, scarcity, and violence. Princeton: University Press, 1999.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The illicit arms trade industry has blossomed in Africa, where porous borders are common around most countries, with weapons moving freely across the borders.

“The illicit arms trade industry has blossomed in Africa, where porous borders are common around most countries, with weapons moving freely across the borders.”

May combine two claims.

While the increase in absentee herd owners is not a new development due to the economic importance of cattle in Africa, what is new is the dynamics of ownership and the resulting neo-patrimonial relationship.

“While the increase in 'absentee herd owners' is not a new development due to the economic importance of cattle in Africa, 36 what is new is the dynamics of ownership and the resulting neo-patrimonial relationship.”

• cites [36] 36. Channels TV. "Big Story: Focus on Cattle Rustling in Nigeria Part 1." 1 March 2016. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hYuIfqLJJ4I (Accessed 1 August 2018)Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

The shift to economically motivated cattle rustling could be partly attributed to the price of cattle, increased demand for meat due to population increase, and the ease of acquiring weapons.

“This could be partly attributed to issues such as the price of cattle, increased demand for meat due to population increase and the ease of acquiring weapons.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Azeez and Aliyu argued that for decades, cattle rustling was localised, seasonal, and pursued with mostly traditional weapons with a low level of violence.

“Azeez and Aliyu argued that for decades, cattle rustling was 'localised, seasonal, and pursued with mostly traditional weapons' with low level of violence.39”

• cites [39] 39. Emmanuel Terkimbi Akov. "The resource-conflict debate revisited: Untangling the case of farmer-herdsman clashes in the North Central region of Nigeria." African Security Review 26, no.3 (2017), 288-307Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

While most trafficked weapons fall into the hands of insurgent and terrorist groups, pastoralists have also increasingly used SALW.

“While most of the trafficked weapons fall into the hands of insurgent and terrorist groups, pastoralists have also increasingly used SALW.”

May combine two claims.

Most cattle rustling activities witnessed in the last decade have been motivated by economic profiteering and are market oriented.

“On the contrary, most of the cattle rustling activities witnessed in the last decade have been motivated by economic profiteering and are market oriented.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Nigeria houses the largest number of cattle (about 20 million) and pastoralists in West Africa.

“This is partly because Nigeria houses the largest number of cattle (about 20 million) and pastoralists in West Africa.9”

• cites [9] 9. Kuna and Ibrahim, "Rural Banditory and Conflicts in Northern Nigeria" 53 Kuna and Ibrahim, "Rural Banditory and Conflicts in Northern Nigeria" 54 Ngelzarma, "Fulani National leader" 55 Interview data from Benue, Nassarawa and Kwara (North Central Nigeria)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Owing to an increase in the value of cattle, traditional pastoralism is gradually giving way to more sophisticated cattle ownership labelled neo-pastoralism, which is prevalent in semi-urban areas.

“Owing to an increase in the value of cattle, traditional pastoralism is gradually giving way to more sophisticated cattle ownership which has been labelled neo-pastoralism and is prevalent in semi-urban areas.14”

• cites [14] 14. Adeseun, "How Unidentified Helicopter Delivers Supplies To Fulani Herdsmen In Delta Desert' - House Of Assembly Member" 71 Ugwuanyi "Herdsmen now attack us with machine guns-Taraba residence" 72Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The issues identified by the IIED do not sufficiently explain the increase in conflict in the last decade, nor do they explain the increased use of small and light weapons (SALW) by pastoralist groups and farming communities.

“Although convincing, the issues identified do not sufficiently explain the increase in conflict in the last decade, neither does it explain the increased use of small and light weapons (SALW) by pastoralist groups and farming communities.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Pastoralists in Sudan and South Sudan have openly displayed SALW for over 10 years.

“For instance, pastoralists in Sudan and South Sudan have openly displayed SALW for over 10 years.51”

• cites [51] 51. Jonah, Leff. "Pastoralists at War: Violence and Security in the Kenya-Sudan-Uganda Border Region," International Journal of Conflict and Violence 3, no. 2 (2009) 188-203Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Previously, the motive behind cattle rustling was either to replenish lost family stock, pay bride prices for young men, or to settle differences, so it was not market oriented or primarily done for economic purposes.

“Previously, the motive behind cattle rustling was either to replenish lost family stock, pay for bride prices for young men or to settle differences, so, it was not market oriented or primarily done for economic purposes.44”

• cites [44] 44. Halliru Salisu Lawal. "Security Implication of Climate Change Between Farmers and Cattle Rearers in Northern Nigeria: A Case Study of Three Communities in Kura Local Government of Kano State". In: Leal Filho W. (eds) Handbook of Climate Change Adaptation. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, 2015.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Traditional pastoralists strive to maintain good relationships with farmers to maintain their symbiotic relationship, while hired herders do not have any incentive to invest in social relations with farmers since they possess weapons which could be used to intimidate farmers.

“In addition, while traditional pastoralists strive to maintain good relationships with farmers to maintain their symbiotic relationship, hired herders do not have any incentive to invest in social relations with farmers since they possess weapons which could be used to intimidate the farmers 22 .”

• cites [22] 22. Adeseun, Anuoluwapo. "How Unidentified Helicopter Delivers Supplies to Fulani Herdsmen in Delta Desert -House Of Assembly Member" Nigerian Monitor, 9 March 2017. http://www.nigerianmonitor.com/lawmaker-says-helicopter-delives-supplies-to-fulani- herdsmen-in-delta-desert/ (Accessed 9 August 2018)Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Apart from hired herders who use weapons to engage in rustling, there are also professional bandits who primarily engage in cattle rustling in several parts of Nigeria.

“Apart from the hired herders who use the weapons available to them to engage in rustling, there are also 'professional bandits' who primarily engage in cattle rustling in several parts of Nigeria. 53”

• cites [53] 53. Kazeem, Yomi. "Nigeria now has a bigger internal security threat than Boko Haram" Quartz Africa, 19 January 2017. https://qz.com/africa/886949/fulani-herdsmen-are-now-a-bigger- security-threat-for-nigeria-than-boko-haram/ (Accessed on 1 August 2018)Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

The International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED) identified several causes of the conflict: institutional failure in the management of land and natural resources, lack of infrastructural investment, changes in livestock and cropping system, increasing wealth differentials among pastoralist groups, poor policy structures, and the non-involvement of pastoralists and farmers in决策.

“These include institutional failure in the management of land and natural resources, lack of infrastructural investment, changes in livestock and cropping system, increasing wealth differentials among pastoralist groups, poor policy structures and the non-involvement of pastoralists and farmers in decision making processes.13”

• cites [13] 13. Halliru, " Security Implication of Climate Change Between Farmers and Cattle Rearers in Northern Nigeria" 63 Fasona and Omojola, "Climate Change, Human Security and Communal Clashes in Nigeria" 64 Akinyemi and Olaniyan, "Nigeria: Climate War and farmer-herder conflicts" 65 This was affirmed by several interviewees including farmers, herdsmen and government officials. 66 Ugwuanyi "Herdsmen now attack us with machine guns-Taraba residence" 67 Salkida "Exclusive on Fulani herdsmen" 68 Most interviewees agreed with this argument. 69 Interview with a military officer in Nigeria, September 2016 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

The changing nature of pastoralism throughout Africa, resulting in new patterns of cattle ownership and management, is a significant causal factor in the increase in conflict.

“This article argues that the changing nature of pastoralism throughout Africa resulting in new patterns of cattle ownership and management is a significant causal factor worth exploring in greater detail.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Several studies have identified corruption, especially in the polity, as a key reason for insurgency in Nigeria.

“Several studies 26 have identified corruption especially in the polity as a key reason for insurgency in the country.”

• cites [26] 26. Akinnaso, Niyi. "Who are the cattle owners in Nigeria?" Punch Newspaper, 13 March 2018. https://punchng.com/who-are-the-cattle-owners-in-nigeria/ (Accessed 11 December 2018)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The aim of the BVN was to monitor banking transactions and reduce or eliminate money laundering.

“The aim of the BVN was to monitor banking transactions and reduce or eliminate money laundering.27”

• cites [27] 27. Akinyemi, Temitope and Olaniyan, Azeez. "Nigeria: Climate War and farmer-herder conflicts" Conflict Studies Quarterly, no. 21 (2017): 3-21Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The panel gathered information from 14 countries in Africa and concluded that Nigeria is one of the countries affected by arms proliferations from Libya.

“The panel gathered information from 14 countries in Africa and concluded that Nigeria is one of the countries affected by arms proliferations from Libya.”

• cites [46] 46. Homer-Dixton, T.F. Environment, scarcity, and violence. Princeton: University Press, 1999.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Konczacki stated that rapid population growth and vagaries of the climate have negatively impacted pastoralism and agricultural productivity in Sub-Saharan Africa since the early 1970s.

“Konczacki while exploring the economics of pastoralism in the late 1970s stated that 'rapid population growth' and 'vagaries of the climate' have negatively impacted on pastoralism and agricultural productivity in Sub-Saharan Africa since early 1970s.11”

• cites [11] 11. Ajala, "Why clashes are on the rise between farmers and herdsmen in the Sahel."Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Although the Libyan conflict is a major source of arms proliferation in Africa, live conflicts in other countries including South Sudan, Somalia, Mali, Central African Republic, Burundi and the Democratic Republic of Congo have also provided arms to various groups including neo-pastoralists.

“Although the Libyan conflict is a major source of arms proliferation in Africa, there are 'live' conflicts in other countries which have also provided arms to various groups including neopastoralists.These include South Sudan, Somalia, Mali, Central African Republic, Burundi and the Democratic republic of Congo.49”

• cites [49] 49. Idowu Opeyemi Aluko. "Urban Violence Dimension in Nigeria: Farmers and Herders Onslaught" Agathos-An International review of humanities and Social Sciences 8, no. 1 (2017): 187-206 International Institute for Environment and Development. "Farmer-Herder Conflict in Sub- Saharan Africa: An Overview of the issue" International Institute for Environment and Development, January 2018.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Neo-pastoralism differs from traditional pastoralism in terms of cattle ownership, average herd sizes and the use of weapons.

“Neo-pastoralism differs from this in terms of cattle ownership, average herd sizes and the use of weapons.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Pastoralist conflicts previously occurred predominantly in the Horn of Africa due to the high number of pastoralists and the traditional occupational structure, but have now spread to countries in other regions such as Nigeria, Ghana, Mali, Niger, Mauritania, Ivory Coast and Senegal.

“Previously, pastoralist conflicts occurred predominantly in the horn of Africa due to the high number of pastoralists and the traditional occupational structure, 8 however, the conflicts have now spread to countries in other regions such as Nigeria, Ghana, Mali, Niger, Mauritania, Ivory Coast and Senegal.”

• cites [8] 8. Toulmin, " Tracking through Drought: Options for Destocking and Restocking" 43 Markakis, "Conflict and the Decline of pastoralism in the horn of Africa". 44 Fleisher, "War is Good for Thieving!" 45 This trend is common in the North Central region of Nigeria based on the accounts of several interviewees. 46 UNSC, "Report of the Panel of Experts reports, 2017" 47 Ibid; See also: Strazzari "Libyan arms and regional instability" 48 Ibid 49 Global Conflict Tracker-1 August 2018 50 Oxfam Research Reports, "The Human cost of uncontrolled arms in Africao" 51 IbidNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Events in several African countries have increased arms proliferation in the region, providing weapons to neo-pastoralists for 'herd protection' which are also used for rustling.

“Events in several African countries have increased arms proliferation in the region providing weapons to neo-pastoralists for 'herd protection' which are also used for rustling.45”

• cites [45] 45. Hill, P. "The Occupation of Migrants in Ghana." Anthropological Papers No. 42, Ann Arbor: 1970. The University of Michigan.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Catley and Aklilu found that pastoralist poverty has not decreased despite the increase in cattle prices, and that in the last 30-40 years the number of poor pastoralists has increased sharply.

“Despite the increase in cattle prices in the last few decades especially with an expansion in the export market, Catley and Aklilu found that pastoralist poverty has not decreased.They argued that in the last 30-40 years, the number of poor pastoralists has increased sharply.35”

• cites [35] 35. Clemens, Greiner. "Guns, land, and votes: Cattle rustling and the politics of boundary (re)making in Northern Kenya." African Affairs 112, no. 447 (2013): 216-237Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Although the ruling elite mostly understand the dynamics of this conflict, politics often play a significant role in the reporting or lack of reporting of the conflict, potential solutions, as well as the response of the Nigerian state.

“Although the ruling elite mostly understand the dynamics of this conflict, politics often play a significant role in the reporting/ lack of reporting of the conflict, potential solutions as well as the response of the Nigerian state.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Comprehensive data were obtained from the ACLED, the Institute of Governance and Social Research (IGSR) and the Centre for Democracy and Development (CDD) West Africa.

“In addition, comprehensive data were obtained from the ACLED, Institute of Governance and Social Research (IGSR) and Centre for Democracy and Development (CDD) West Africa.”

May combine two claims.

While potential solutions such as expansion of grazing lands, disarming of armed pastoralists, compensation for farmers, securitization of farming communities, addressing issues related to climate change and combating cattle rustling have all been discussed, the conflict has been fraught with political calculations which makes it difficult to resolve.

“While potential solutions such as expansion of grazing lands, 76 disarming of armed pastoralists, 77 compensation for farmers, 78 securitization of farming communities, 79 addressing issues related to climate change 80 and combating cattle rustling 81 have all been discussed, the conflict has been fraught with political calculations which makes it difficult to resolve.”

• cites [76] 76. PM News. "Most Nigerian cattle not owned by Fulani Herdsmen-Shawulu". 29 April 2016. https://www.pmnewsnigeria.com/2016/04/29/most-nigerian-cattle-not-owned-by-fulani- herdsmen-shawulu/ (Accessed 11 December 2018)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites [77] 77. Podesta, John and Peter, Ogden. "The Security Implications of Climate Change." The Washington Quarterly 31, no. 1 (2008): 115-138 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [78] 78. Popoola, Nike. "Herdsmen: No Insurance compensation for farmers." Punch Nigeria, 28 January 2018. https://punchng.com/herdsmen-no-insurance-compensation-for-farmers/ (Accessed 12 December 2018) Premium times Nigeria. "Amidst anti-corruption war, BVN, bank customers reduce across Nigeria". Premium times, Nigeria. 18 March 2018, https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/headlines/262227-amidst-anti-corruption-war-bvn- bank-customers-reduce-across-nigeria.html (Accessed 11 December 2018)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Linking the farmer-pastoralist conflict in Nigeria to ethnicity and religion diverts attention from the core issues and creates division between previously integrated communities.

“First, linking this conflict to ethnicity and religion often diverts attention from the core issues and creates division between previously integrated communities.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Almost all pastoralists in the conflict are of Fulani descent, yet most of the attacks are directed against other ethnic groups.

May combine two claims.

Occasionally, when grazing activities destroyed farm produce and conflicts arose, there was a conflict resolution mechanism in place between farmers and pastoralists and differences were usually resolved without recourse to violent conflicts.

“Occasionally, when grazing activities destroyed farm produce and conflicts arose, there was a conflict resolution mechanism in place between the farmers and the pastoralists and differences were usually resolved without recourse to violent conflicts.58”

• cites [58] 58. Kuna, Mohammed and Ibrahim, Jibrin. "Rural Banditry and Conflicts in Northern Nigeria" Centre for democracy and development, 2015Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

A total of 70 interviews were carried out between 2013 and 2019, with interviewees selected under four categories: farmers, representatives of pastoral groups, government officials and experts on the topic.

“A total of 70 interviews were carried out between 2013 and 2019 with the interviewees selected under four categories: Farmers, representatives of pastoral groups, government officials and experts on the topic.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The debate on grazing and the provision of ranches in Nigeria is often politicised and painted as either the marginalisation of the Fulanis or the preferential treatment of the Fulanis, depending on who is involved.

“Second, the debate on grazing and the provision of ranches are often politicised and painted in a manner akin to either the marginalisation of the Fulanis or the preferential treatment of the Fulanis, depending on who is involved in the debate.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

The inability of the Nigerian ruling elite to address the impact of the neo-pastoralist dimension of the conflict is problematic.

“In addition, the inability of the ruling elite in Nigeria to address the impact of the neopastoralist dimension of the conflict is problematic.”

May combine two claims.

Despite Miyetti Allah justifying the killing of scores of people in Plateau state in 2018 as retaliation for the killing of 300 cows by farming communities, the government refused to act against the group, claiming it is a socio-cultural group representing Fulani interests.

“Despite Miyetti Allah justifying the killing of scores of people in Plateau state in 2018 as a retaliation for the killing of 300 cows by the farming communities, 88 the government refused to take any action on the group claiming that it is a socio-cultural group representing the interests of Fulanis.89”

• cites [88] 88. Tonah, Steve. "Migration and Farmer-Herder Conflicts in Ghana's Volta Basin." Canadian Journal of African Studies 40, No. 1 (2006), pp. 152-178 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [89] 89. Toulmin, Camilla. "Tracking through Drought: Options for Destocking and Restocking" in Ian Scoones (eds) Living with Uncertainty, new directions in Pastoral Development in Africa.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The types of arms and ammunitions involved in these attacks are beyond the reach of traditional pastoralists and point towards neo-pastoralists.

“The types of arms and ammunitions involved in these attacks are beyond the reach of traditional pastoralists and point towards neo-pastoralists.68”

• cites [68] 68. Mkutu, Kennedy Agade. Guns and Governance in the Rift Vally: Pastoralist Conflict and Small arms. Oxford: James Currey, 2008Not checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The dynamics of the farmer-pastoralist conflict in Nigeria are more complicated than has been reported and crucial aspects of the conflict have not been addressed.

“The article argues that the dynamics of the conflict are more complicated than has been reported and crucial aspects of the conflict have not been”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Davidheiser and Luna identified the combination of colonialization and the introduction of capitalism to Africa as one of the principal causes of the conflict between pastoralists and farmers on the continent.

“Davidheiser and Luna identified the combination of colonialization and the introduction of capitalism to Africa as one of the principal causes of the conflict between pastoralists and farmers on the continent.59”

• cites [59] 59. Lamphear, J. "The traditional history of the Jie of Uganda". Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1976.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Many Nigerians believe that Miyetti Allah has been deliberately shielded by the government because the sitting president, President Buhari, is from the Fulani ethnic group.

“This has led many Nigerians to think that the group has been deliberately shielded by the government as the sitting president (President Buhari) is from the Fulani ethnic group.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The sitting Nigerian president, President Buhari, is from the Fulani ethnic group.

May combine two claims.

The failure of the Nigerian state to deal with the conflict stems from a combination of inability to address the neo-pastoral aspect of the conflict and unwillingness to alter the neo-patrimonial balance of the state.

“The article also argues that the failure of the Nigerian state to deal with the issue stems from a combination of inability to address the neo-pastoral aspect of the conflict as well as the unwillingness to alter the neo-patrimonial balance of the state.”

May combine two claims.

In the pre-colonial symbiotic relationship, cattle grazed on foliage after harvest in the dry season, and in return for grazing and right of way, cattle droppings were used as manure; this was a period of small holding farms and family owned cattle and both farmers and herdsmen benefitted.

“The cattle grazed on the foliage provided by the farmers after their harvest usually in the dry season when the pastoralists move their cattle further southwards to graze.In return for the grazing and right of way provided by the farmers, the cattle's droppings were used by the farmers as manure to fertilize their farmlands.This was a period of small holding farms and family owned sizes of cattle”

May combine two claims.

Influential religious, ethnic and political leaders often engage in political and ethnic manipulations while purportedly addressing the conflict, which often stokes rather than douses tensions.

“Furthermore, influential religious, ethnic and political leaders often engage in political and ethnic manipulations while purportedly addressing the issue which often stokes rather than douse tensions.83”

• cites [83] 83. Sahara Reporters. "APC is a Miyetti Allah Party that values cows over humans, says ex- Benue chieftain" Sahara Reporters, 15 June 2018Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The integration of capitalism and modern modes of production resulted in a shift from exchange-based relations between farmers and pastoralists to marketisation and commodification, which increased pressure and demand for natural resources and destabilised the previous symbiotic relationship.

“The analysis offered is that the integration of capitalism and modern modes of production resulted in a shift from 'exchange-based relations' between the farmers and the pastoralists to 'marketisation and commodification' which increased the pressure and demand for natural resources between the pair and destabilised the previous symbiotic relationship.61”

• cites [61] 61. Lewis, Peter. "Endgame in Nigeria? The Politics of failed democratic transition." African Affairs, 93, no. 372 (1994): 323-340 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Davidheiser and Luna argued that changes in land tenure laws during the colonial era coupled with changes in farming techniques following the adoption of modern farming methods such as irrigation agriculture and sedentarisation schemes for transhumant pastoralists disrupted the symbiotic relationship between farmers and pastoralists, increasing the likelihood of conflict.

“They argued that changes in land tenure laws during the colonial era coupled with changes in farming techniques following the adoption of modern farming methods such as irrigation agriculture and 'sedentarisation schemes for transhumant pastoralists' disrupted the symbiotic relationship between the farmers and the pastoralists increasing the likelihood of conflict between the groups.60”

• cites [60] 60. Lewis, Peter. "From Prebendalism to Predation: The Political Economy of decline in Nigeria." The Journal of Modern African Studies 34, no. 1 (1996): 79-103 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In a quantitative research carried out in Kano state, Nigeria in 2010, Halliru identifies desert encroachment as a major source of resource struggle leading to conflicts between pastoralists and farmers in Northern Nigeria.

“In a quantitative research carried out in Kano state, Nigeria in 2010, Halliru identifies desert encroachment as a major source of resource struggle leading to conflicts between pastoralists and farmers in Northern Nigeria.62”

• cites [62] 62. Little, Peter. "Absentee herd owners and part-time pastoralists: The political economy of resource use in northern Kenya." Human Ecology 13, (1985) 131-151 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In June 2018, after several affected states individually established anti-grazing laws, the federal government of Nigeria announced plans to spend N179 billion (about $600 million) to build ranches in 10 states.

“In June 2018, after several states affected by the conflict decided to individually establish anti-grazing laws on their lands, the federal government of Nigeria in an attempt to end the conflict and offer a coherent solution announced plans to spend N179 billion (about $600 million) to build ranches in 10 states.84”

• cites [84] 84. Salkilda, Ahmad. "Exclusive on Fulani herdsmen: "We have machine guns, bombs and military uniforms-Jauro Buba" Salkida, 9 July 2018. http://salkida.com/exclusive-on-fulani- herdsmen-we-have-machine-guns-bombs-and-military-uniforms-ready-for-war-jauro-buba/ (Accessed 9 August 2018)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Rather than address the issues responsible for the conflict, Nigerian politicians often accentuate the ethnic motivations for the conflict in order to increase their own popularity and create patronage, as with other conflicts in Nigeria.

“Rather than address the issues identified as responsible for the conflict, politicians often accentuate the ethnic motivations for the conflict in order to increase their own popularity and to create patronage as with other conflicts in Nigeria.82”

• cites [82] 82. Reuveny, Rafael. "Climate change-induced migration and violent conflict". Political Geography 26, no. 6 (2007): 656-673 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Conflicting interests in the pastoralist industry are leading to an arms race and creating a warlike environment as increasing numbers of traditional pastoralists have also resorted to bearing weapons to protect themselves and their cattle.

“These conflicting interests in the pastoralist industry is leading to an arms race and creating a warlike environment as increasing numbers of traditional pastoralists have also resorted to bearing weapons to protect themselves and their cattle.55”

• cites [55] 55. Konczacki, Zbigniew. "The Economics of Pastoralism: A Case study of Sub-Saharan Africa". London: Frank Class and Company, 1978Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

This new pattern of migration increases the pressure on land and land resources, resulting in conflicts between farmers and herdsmen.

“This new pattern of migration increases the pressure on land and land resources resulting in conflicts between farmers and herdsmen.64”

• cites [64] 64. Markakis, John. "Conflict and the Decline of Pastoralism in the Horn of Africa." Palgrave: Macmillan, 1993Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

These changes make traditional conflict management between farmers and pastoralists more difficult and sometimes impossible.

“These changes make traditional conflict management between farmers and pastoralists more difficult and sometimes impossible.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

These assertions further indicate that the ownership of these cattle is questionable.

“These assertions further indicate that the ownership of these cattle is questionable.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Many owners of large cattle herds are influential elites with considerable influence, which makes prosecution of crimes difficult.

“Furthermore, many owners of large cattle herds are influential elites with considerable influence which makes prosecution of crimes difficult.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A combination of purposive and snowball sampling was used to identify and select the most suitable people to be interviewed.

“A combination of purposive and snowball sampling was used to identify and select the most suitable people to be interviewed.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The politicisation of the grazing and ranching issue, coupled with the government's lackadaisical approach, makes every move towards resolving the conflict unattractive to the parties involved.

“The politicisation of the issue coupled with the lackadaisical approach of the government makes every move towards resolving the conflict unattractive to the parties involved.”