Gestures, but not meaningless movements, lighten working memory load when explaining math
Open accessAbstract
Gesturing is ubiquitous in communication and serves an important function for listeners, who are able to glean meaningful information from the gestures they see. But gesturing also functions for speakers, whose own gestures reduce demands on their working memory. Here we ask whether gesture's beneficial effects on working memory stem from its properties as a rhythmic movement, or as a vehicle for representing meaning. We asked speakers to remember letters while explaining their solutions to math problems and producing varying types of movements. Speakers recalled significantly more letters when producing movements that coordinated with the meaning of the accompanying speech, i.e., when gesturing, than when producing meaningless movements or no movement. The beneficial effects that accrue to speakers when gesturing thus seem to stem not merely from the fact that their hands are moving, but from the fact that their hands are moving in coordination with the content of speech.
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
Speakers recalled more letters while explaining math problems when they produced meaningful gestures than when they produced meaningless circular movements or kept still. The working-memory benefit of gesture therefore appears to depend on movement being coordinated with speech meaning, not merely on rhythmic hand movement.
Key findings
- Participants were more likely to remember the six consonants when gesturing during explanations than when producing meaningless movements (β = −.17, z = 3.23, p < .01) or no movement (β = −.13, z = 2.61, p < .01).
- The gesture advantage held in a between-subjects analysis limited to each participant’s first condition: meaningless movement β = −.30, z = 1.90, p = .057; no movement β = −.36, z = 2.30, p = .02.
- Instructed gesturing produced more gestures than spontaneous gesturing in prior work: mean 13 gestures, maximum 88, versus mean 6, maximum 33 in Wagner et al. (2004).
- Meaningless movement affected verbal production—more words (52.8 vs. 46.9 meaningful, 46.3 no movement) and fewer non-juncture filled pauses (.16 vs. .24 meaningful, .26 no movement)—but these verbal measures did not account for the working-memory benefit.
Methods
- 115 college students (62 females; mean age = 19.6 years) solved 30 quadratic factoring problems, then held six consonants in memory for 2.5 seconds while explaining their solutions under instructed conditions: meaningful movement/gesture, meaningless circular movement, or no movement.
- Because pilot testing showed three instruction changes were difficult, each participant completed two of the three conditions, yielding three groups; order was counterbalanced, and problems and memory lists were randomized.
- Recall of each of the six letters was analyzed with multilevel logistic regression including condition and trial as fixed effects and subject, math problem, and working-memory list as random effects; verbal explanations were also analyzed with multilevel regression.
Limitations
- The paper states that the gestures produced were primarily deictic and directed at visible entities, so findings might be restricted to gestures that point out objects in the immediate environment, though it cites other work suggesting the benefit may not be limited to such gestures.
- The paper states that the data do not pinpoint a mechanism for gesture’s working-memory benefit, only narrowing it to mechanisms involving gesture as a vehicle for meaning.
- Evident from the text: participants were college students performing a specific math-factoring task, gesture was experimentally instructed rather than spontaneous, and each participant completed only two of three conditions, which may limit generalizability and full within-subject comparison.
Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
0 of 51 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged
- Findingown data
The meaningless movements did appear to provide some benefit in terms of lexical access.
“although they did appear to provide some benefit in terms of lexical access”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Gesturing reduces demand on working memory.
“The data presented here demonstrate that working memory is a locus of interaction for speech and gesture and that gesturing reduces demand on working memory.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Participants in the Meaningless Movement condition were less likely to produce a non-juncture filled pause than participants in the Meaningful Movement and No Movement conditions.
“Participants in the Meaningless Movement condition were less likely to produce a non-juncture filled pause (indicating facilitation in lexical access) than participants in the Meaningful Movement and No Movement conditions (estimated probability of producing a filled pause in each explanation: Meaningful Movement .24 vs. No Movement .26 vs. Meaningless Movement .16, βMeaningless Movement = −.56, z”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: All participants come from a population with normally distributed working memory capacities.
- Findingown data
Gestures did not facilitate lexical access as measured by non-juncture filled pauses.
“This hypothesis is consistent with our data in that gestures did not facilitate lexical access (as measured by non-juncture filled pauses) even when we did see an effect of movement on lexical access (again as measured by non-juncture filled pauses).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Non-juncture filled pauses are a valid measure of lexical access.
- Findingown data
None of the measures of participants' explanations reliably accounted for variability in recall of the letters.
“None of the measures of participants’ explanations reliably accounted for variability in recall of the letters (βword count = .0005, z = 0.32, ns; βfilled pauses = .15, z = 1.65, ns; βdeictic = −.10, z = 1.26, ns).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: All participants come from a population with normally distributed working memory capacities.
- Findingreasoning
Gesturing lightens demand on working memory even when the speaker is told to gesture.
“Gesturing lightens demand on working memory even when the speaker is told to gesture.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Participants in the Meaningless Movement condition did not show a concurrent benefit on working memory performance.
“If anything, participants in the Meaningless Movement condition showed a benefit on one measure of lexical access (non-juncture filled pauses) relative to Meaningful Movement and No Movement, but without a concurrent benefit on working memory performance.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
In this study, restricting movement did not lead to decreases in participants' verbal production.
“We found no evidence that restricting movement led to decreases in participants’ verbal production or increases in their difficulties with lexical access, as has previously been reported in the literature (Rauscher, Krauss & Chen, 1996).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Working memory is a locus of interaction for speech and gesture.
“The data presented here demonstrate that working memory is a locus of interaction for speech and gesture and that gesturing reduces demand on working memory.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The gestures produced in this study were primarily deictic gestures directed at entities visible in the environment.
“The gestures that were produced in our study were primarily deictic gestures directed at entities visible in the environment.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
The meaningless movements did not lighten demand on speakers' working memory.
“But these movements did not lighten demand on speakers’ working memory (although they did appear to provide some benefit in terms of lexical access).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Participants in the Meaningless Movement condition showed a benefit on non-juncture filled pauses relative to Meaningful Movement and No Movement.
“If anything, participants in the Meaningless Movement condition showed a benefit on one measure of lexical access (non-juncture filled pauses) relative to Meaningful Movement and No Movement, but without a concurrent benefit on working memory performance.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Non-juncture filled pauses are a valid measure of lexical access.
- Findingown data
Participants in the Meaningless Movement condition used more words than participants in the Meaningful Movement and No Movement conditions.
“Participants in the Meaningless Movement condition used more words than participants in the Meaningful Movement and No Movement conditions (estimated means: Meaningful Movement 46.9 vs. No Movement 46.3 vs. Meaningless Movement 52.8, βMeaningless Movement = 5.9, t = 3.28, pMCMC < .01; βNo Movement = −.59, t = 0.46, ns).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: All participants come from a population with normally distributed working memory capacities.
- Findingown data
The explanations produced by participants in this study did not involve spatial language.
“First, the explanations produced by participants in our study did not involve spatial language, the domain in which gesture’s effects on lexical access have been reliably observed in spontaneous speech (Rauscher, Krauss & Chen, 1996).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Even when participants produced meaningful movements (gestures) at a rate clearly responsive to an experimental instruction (>33 gestures), they showed a working memory benefit relative to producing meaningless movements or no movements.
“Even in this extremely restricted database, the pattern of performance remained the same: participants performed reliably better in the Meaningful Movement condition than in the Meaningless Movement and No Movement conditions (βMeaningless Movement = −.53, z = 2.93, p < .01, βNo Movement = −.49, z = 2.70, p < .01)5.”
- Also stated in: § Implementation of our instructions · plain
“Thus, even when participants were producing meaningful movements (gestures) at a rate that was clearly responsive to an experimental instruction, they showed a working memory benefit, relative to producing meaningless movements or no movements in the other two conditions.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: All participants come from a population with normally distributed working memory capacities.
- Rests on an assumption: Trials with more than 33 gestures are clearly responsive to an experimental instruction rather than typical behavior.
- Also stated in: § Implementation of our instructions · plain
- Findingown data
Participants were more likely to remember the working memory items when they gestured while explaining the problem than when they produced meaningless movements or did not move at all.
“Speakers recalled significantly more letters when producing movements that coordinated with the meaning of the accompanying speech, i.e., when gesturing, than when producing meaningless movements or no movement.”
- Also stated in: § Performance on the working memory task · plain
“participants were more likely to remember the working memory items when they gestured while explaining the problem than when they produced meaningless movements (βMeaningless Movement = −.17, z = 3.23, p < .01) or did not move at all (βNo Movement = −.13, z = 2.61, p < .01).”
- Also stated in: § Gesture, but not meaningless movement, lightens demand on working memory · plain
“Speakers in our study remembered more letters when they produced meaningful movements, that is, gestures, while explaining their solutions to a math problem than when they produced meaningless movements or no movements at all.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: All participants come from a population with normally distributed working memory capacities.
- Also stated in: § Performance on the working memory task · plain
- Findingown data
In this study, restricting movement did not lead to increases in participants' difficulties with lexical access.
“We found no evidence that restricting movement led to decreases in participants’ verbal production or increases in their difficulties with lexical access, as has previously been reported in the literature (Rauscher, Krauss & Chen, 1996).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Non-juncture filled pauses are a valid measure of lexical access.
- Findingnone given
Moving the hands in rhythmic synchrony with speech does not lighten load on working memory.
“Importantly, moving the hands in rhythmic synchrony with speech does not lighten load on working memory.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The gestures produced by speakers in this study sometimes depicted numbers coming together and being broken apart.
“Consistent with this account, the gestures produced by speakers in our study sometimes depicted numbers coming together and being broken apart.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation
Moving one's hand in meaningless ways has been shown to facilitate speaking, particularly when the timing of the movement and the speech are synchronized.
“In fact, moving one’s hand in meaningless ways has been shown to facilitate speaking, particularly when the timing of the movement and the speech are synchronized (Chang & Hammond, 1987; Pellecchia, Shockley, & Turvey, 2005; Ravizza, 2003; Treffner & Peter, 2002; Whitall, 1996).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Chang & Hammond, 1987
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- cites Pellecchia, Shockley, & Turvey, 2005
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- cites Ravizza, 2003
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- Premisecitation
Gesturing can reduce demand on working memory.
“gesturing can thus reduce demand on working memory (Baddeley, 1996).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Baddeley, 1996
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- Premisecitation
Speakers produce fewer non-juncture filled pauses in speech with spatial content when gesture is permitted than when it is restricted.
“Second, speakers produce fewer non-juncture filled pauses (which are associated with lexical retrieval difficulty) in speech with spatial content when gesture is permitted than when it is restricted (Krauss, 1998; Rauscher, Krauss, & Chen, 1996).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Krauss, 1998
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- cites Rauscher, Krauss, & Chen, 1996
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- Premisecitation
Speakers asked to explain their solutions to a math problem remember more items on an unrelated list when gesture is permitted than when it is restricted.
“Finally, speakers asked to explain their solutions to a math problem remember more items on an unrelated list when gesture is permitted than when it is restricted (Goldin-Meadow, Nusbaum, Kelly & Wagner, 2001; Ping & Goldin-Meadow, 2010; Wagner, Nusbaum & Goldin-Meadow, 2004); gesturing can thus reduce demand on working memory (Baddeley, 1996).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Goldin-Meadow, Nusbaum, Kelly & Wagner, 2001
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- cites Ping & Goldin-Meadow, 2010
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- cites Wagner, Nusbaum & Goldin-Meadow, 2004
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- Premisecitation
Speakers talk more quickly and more fluently when gesture is permitted than when it is restricted.
“First, speakers talk more quickly and more fluently when gesture is permitted than when it is restricted (Graham & Heywood, 1975; Rauscher, Krauss, & Chen, 1996).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Graham & Heywood, 1975
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- cites Rauscher, Krauss, & Chen, 1996
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- Interpretationown data
Lexical access and verbal production were not enough to explain the working memory benefit associated with gesturing in this study.
“Importantly, however, lexical access and verbal production were not enough to explain the working memory benefit associated with gesturing in our study, suggesting that movement may work differently to facilitate working memory than it works to support verbal production.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Non-juncture filled pauses are a valid measure of lexical access.
- Interpretationown data
The work reported here extends the claim that gesture's meaningfulness matters to speakers, demonstrating that whether or not a speaker's movements are meaningful also matters.
“The work reported here extends this claim to speakers, demonstrating that whether or not a speaker’s movements are meaningful also matters.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Wagner, Nusbaum and Goldin-Meadow (2004) found that the beneficial effect of gesturing on working memory depended on the relation between the meaning expressed in gesture and the meaning expressed in the accompanying speech.
“Wagner, Nusbaum and Goldin-Meadow (2004) found that the beneficial effect of gesturing on working memory depended on the relation between the meaning expressed in gesture and the meaning expressed in the accompanying speech (see also Ping & Goldin-Meadow, 2010).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Wagner, Nusbaum and Goldin-Meadow (2004)
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- cites Ping & Goldin-Meadow, 2010
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- Interpretationown data
It is unlikely that the instruction to produce meaningless movements or no movements accounts for the working memory findings.
“It therefore seems unlikely that the instruction to produce meaningless movements or no movements is accounting for the working memory findings presented in Figure 2.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Participants in the Meaningful Movement condition only had to remember to do what one typically does on this task (i.e., gesture).
- Rests on an assumption: Trials with more than 33 gestures are clearly responsive to an experimental instruction rather than typical behavior.
- Interpretationown data
The hypothesis that gesture facilitates selection of appropriate lexical items for subsequent production is consistent with our data.
“In contrast, gesture may facilitate selection of appropriate lexical items for subsequent production. This hypothesis is consistent with our data in that gestures did not facilitate lexical access (as measured by non-juncture filled pauses) even when we did see an effect of movement on lexical access (again as measured by non-juncture filled pauses).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Non-juncture filled pauses are a valid measure of lexical access.
- Premisecitation
Gesture conveys meaning differently from speech.
“Gesture conveys meaning differently from speech and this difference may be important in gesture’s ability to lessen speakers’ demand on working memory.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Goldin-Meadow & McNeill, 1999
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- cites Goldin-Meadow, McNeill & Singleton, 1996
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- cites McNeill, 1992
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- Premisecitation
Chang and Hammond (1987) found that speech rate increased to synchronize with the rate of the speaker's cyclical finger movements.
“For example, Chang and Hammond (1987) found that speech rate increased to synchronize with the rate of the speaker’s cyclical finger movements.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Chang and Hammond (1987)
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- Interpretationreasoning
Accessing lexical items was not particularly difficult for participants in this task.
“Since accessing lexical items was not particularly difficult for participants in our task, there is no reason to expect gesturing (or not gesturing) to affect their ability to retrieve lexical items.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Non-juncture filled pauses are a valid measure of lexical access.
- Premisecitation
When speech and gesture conveyed the same information, demand on working memory was less than when speech and gesture conveyed different information.
“When speech and gesture conveyed the same information, demand on working memory was less than when speech and gesture conveyed different information.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Wagner, Nusbaum and Goldin-Meadow (2004)
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- Interpretationreasoning
Awareness of one's gestures does not seem to matter for the working memory effects observed here.
“Interestingly, awareness of one’s gestures does not seem to matter for the working memory effects observed here.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Gesture's meaningfulness is important for listeners.
“Gesture’s meaningfulness is thus important for listeners (see also Goldin-Meadow & Sandhofer, 1999; Goldin-Meadow & Singer, 2003).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Goldin-Meadow & Sandhofer, 1999
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- cites Goldin-Meadow & Singer, 2003
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- Interpretationown data
It is unlikely that differences in verbal production account for the differences in working memory performance observed.
“Thus, it seems unlikely that differences in verbal production account for the differences in working memory performance we observed.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: All participants come from a population with normally distributed working memory capacities.
- Premisecitation
The coordination of information across modalities has important implications for demand on working memory.
“This finding makes it clear that the coordination of information across modalities has important implications for demand on working memory.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Most studies showing that gesture plays a role in lexical access used paradigms eliciting a variety of relatively obscure lexical items or focused on access failure during tip-of-the-tongue states.
“In contrast, most studies showing that gesture plays a role in lexical access have used paradigms eliciting a variety of relatively obscure lexical items, or have focused on access failure during tip-of-the-tongue states (Frick-Horbury & Guttentag, 1998; Ravizza, 2003).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Frick-Horbury & Guttentag, 1998
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- cites Ravizza, 2003
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- Interpretationreasoning
It is gesture's meaningfulness that is responsible for its beneficial effects, in both listeners and speakers.
“Importantly, it is gesture’s meaningfulness that seems to be responsible for its beneficial effects, in both listeners and speakers.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Telling children to gesture during a lesson makes children particularly likely to learn the lesson.
“Telling children to gesture during a lesson has, in fact, been found to make children particularly likely to learn the lesson (Broaders, Cook, Mitchell, & Goldin-Meadow, 2007; Cook, Mitchell, & Goldin-Meadow, 2008).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Broaders, Cook, Mitchell, & Goldin-Meadow, 2007
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- cites Cook, Mitchell, & Goldin-Meadow, 2008
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- Premisecitation
Adults who participate in our studies are typically not consciously aware of the gestures they produce when explaining their solutions to math problems.
“Adults who participate in our studies are typically not consciously aware of the gestures they produce when explaining their solutions to the math problems (Goldin-Meadow, et al., 2001, Wagner et al., 2004).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Goldin-Meadow, et al., 2001
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- cites Wagner et al., 2004
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- Premisecitation
Instructing participants to gesture has been effectively used in previous studies exploring the cognitive benefits of gesture on working memory.
“Finally, instructing participants to gesture has been effectively used in previous studies exploring the cognitive benefits of gesture on working memory (Ping & Goldin-Meadow, 2010).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Ping & Goldin-Meadow, 2010
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- Premisecitation
The meaningfulness of movement affects the amount that is learned.
“Moreover, like the findings reported here, the meaningfulness of the movement affects the amount that is learned (Goldin-Meadow, Cook & Mitchell, 2009).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Goldin-Meadow, Cook & Mitchell, 2009
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- Interpretationreasoning
Movement may work differently to facilitate working memory than it works to support verbal production.
“Importantly, however, lexical access and verbal production were not enough to explain the working memory benefit associated with gesturing in our study, suggesting that movement may work differently to facilitate working memory than it works to support verbal production.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
The beneficial effects that accrue to speakers when gesturing stem not merely from the fact that their hands are moving, but from the fact that their hands are moving in coordination with the content of speech.
“The beneficial effects that accrue to speakers when gesturing thus seem to stem not merely from the fact that their hands are moving, but from the fact that their hands are moving in coordination with the content of speech.”
- Also stated in: § Gesture, but not meaningless movement, lightens demand on working memory · hedged
“These findings suggest that gesture’s beneficial effects on working memory stem from its properties as a movement synchronized with meaning encoded in speech.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Also stated in: § Gesture, but not meaningless movement, lightens demand on working memory · hedged
- Study design and conductreasoning
By asking participants to gesture, the study could control for possible confounding effects of instruction.
“By asking participants to gesture (i.e., to move their hands in meaningful ways), we could control for possible confounding effects of instruction (i.e., elicited meaningless movements vs. spontaneous meaningful movements).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
The data narrow down the class of potential mechanisms to those highlighting gesture's ability to function as a vehicle for meaning.
“Although our data do not pinpoint a particular mechanism for this effect, they do narrow down the class of potential mechanisms to those highlighting gesture’s ability to function as a vehicle for meaning.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Meaningful gestures produced along with a sentence facilitate listeners' recall of that sentence, relative to non-meaningful gestures, mismatching gestures, or no gestures at all.
“Meaningful gestures produced along with a sentence facilitate listeners’ recall of that sentence, relative to non-meaningful gestures, mismatching gestures, or no gestures at all (Feyereisen, 2006).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Feyereisen, 2006
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- Interpretationreasoning
To lighten working memory load, speakers need to move their hands in meaningful ways.
“To lighten this load, speakers need to move their hands in meaningful ways.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Maintaining information in both a spoken and a visual format in working memory places less demand on memory than maintaining information in a single format.
“Indeed, maintaining information in both a spoken and a visual format in working memory has been found to place less demand on memory than maintaining information in a single format (Goolkasian & Foos, 2005).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Goolkasian & Foos, 2005
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- Premisecitation
Gesture conveys information imagistically, relying on an analog rather than a discrete representational format.
“In contrast, gesture conveys information imagistically, relying on an analog rather than a discrete representational format (Goldin-Meadow & McNeill, 1999; Goldin-Meadow, McNeill & Singleton, 1996; McNeill, 1992).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Goldin-Meadow & McNeill, 1999
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- cites Goldin-Meadow, McNeill & Singleton, 1996
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- cites McNeill, 1992
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- Premisecitation
Signers gesture along with their signs.
“But signers gesture along with their signs (Emmorey, 1999), and those gestures are, almost by definition, analog in form.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Emmorey, 1999
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- Interpretationown data
Gesturing while talking can function to lighten one's working memory load.
“Our findings suggest that doing so can function to lighten one’s working memory load.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Gestures that do not convey the same meaning as the speech they accompany reduce demand on working memory less than gestures conveying the same meaning.
“Consistent with this hypothesis, gestures that do not convey the same meaning as the speech they accompany reduce demand on working memory less than gestures conveying the same meaning (Wagner et al., 2004; but see Ping & Goldin-Meadow, 2010, for evidence that the effect may be different for novices).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Wagner et al., 2004
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- cites Ping & Goldin-Meadow, 2010
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- Interpretationown data
Using the body to externalize mathematical notions lessens the speaker's working memory load.
“Our findings suggest that using the body to externalize mathematical notions lessens the speaker’s working memory load.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 24
- May combine two claims. 5
- The quote only partly states this claim. 1
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Findingown dataParticipants produced gestures at a higher rate in this study than in previous studies that used an identical paradigm but without instructing participants to gesture.
“Not surprisingly, we found that gestures were produced at a higher rate in this study than in previous studies that used an identical paradigm but without instructing participants to gesture (e.g., Wagner et al., 2004).”
- Also stated in: § Performance on the explanation task · plain
“Participants in Wagner et al. (2004) who were permitted (but not instructed) to gesture produced a mean of 6 gestures, and a maximum of 33 gestures, for each explanation on which they gestured. In contrast, when participants were instructed to gesture in the current study, they produced a mean of 13 gestures, and a maximum of 88 gestures, for each explanation.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Wagner et al., 2004
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- Also stated in: § Performance on the explanation task · plain
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataThe overall pattern of working memory performance for experimental conditions remained the same after adding verbal measures: participants performed significantly worse in No Movement and marginally worse in Meaningless Movement than in Meaningful Movement.
“Moreover, the overall pattern of performance for the experimental conditions remained the same: participants performed significantly worse in the No Movement condition (βNo Movement = −.13, z = 2.01, p = .044), and marginally worse in the Meaningless Movement condition (βMeaningless Movement = −.25, z = 1.76, p = .079), than participants in the Meaningful Movement condition.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: All participants come from a population with normally distributed working memory capacities.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Findingown dataParticipants in this study produced gestures comparable to the gestures that participants spontaneously produced in previous studies.
“Participants in our study produced sequences of points to various elements of the problem, using the index finger as well as more complex pointing handshapes (see Figure 1 for an example), and thus produced gestures that were comparable to the gestures that participants spontaneously produced in previous studies2.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Findingown dataThere was a positive effect of trial; performance improved throughout the experiment.
“There was a positive effect of trial; performance improved throughout the experiment (βtrial=.0085, z = 4.66, p<.0001).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Findingown dataThere was no reliable effect of condition for speech rate.
“There was no reliable effect of condition for speech rate.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationSpeakers are more likely to generate target words from definitions when gesture is permitted than when it is restricted.
“Third, speakers are more likely to generate target words from definitions when gesture is permitted than when it is restricted (Frick-Horbury & Guttentag, 1998).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Frick-Horbury & Guttentag, 1998
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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductown dataIncluding eliminated trials in the analyses does not change the pattern of results described below.
“Including these trials in the analyses does not change the pattern of results described below.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Study design and conductnone givenOrder of conditions was counterbalanced within groups; problems and working memory lists were randomized across participants.
“Order of conditions was counterbalanced within groups; problems and working memory lists were randomized across participants.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningGesture, be it spontaneous or experimentally elicited, not only facilitates learning but also benefits working memory processing.
“Our findings extend this phenomenon by demonstrating that gesture, be it spontaneous or experimentally elicited, not only facilitates learning but also benefits working memory processing.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductown dataEliminated trials accounted for 18% of the data.
“Eliminated trials accounted for 18% of the data.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationown dataGesturing lightens the speaker's working memory load and therefore serves a function for speakers as well as listeners.
“Gesturing thus seems to lighten the speaker’s working memory load and therefore serves a function for speakers as well as listeners.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
Study design and conductnone givenThe meaningless movements taught were, for the most part, produced in temporal synchrony with speech.
“The meaningless movements that we taught our participants were, for the most part, produced in temporal synchrony with speech.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimThe quote only partly states this claim.
InterpretationcitationThe finding that Meaningless Movement benefited non-juncture filled pauses is consistent with reports that movement can facilitate lexical access and fluency.
“This finding is consistent with reports that movement can facilitate lexical access and fluency (Chang & Hammond, 1987; Pellecchia, Shockley, & Turvey, 2005; Ravizza, 2003; Treffner & Peter, 2002; Whitall, 1996).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Chang & Hammond, 1987
Not checked in the free run.
- cites Pellecchia, Shockley, & Turvey, 2005
Not checked in the free run.
- cites Ravizza, 2003
Not checked in the free run.
- Rests on an assumption: Non-juncture filled pauses are a valid measure of lexical access.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationRavizza (2003) reported that speakers are more likely to resolve tip-of-the-tongue states when they are asked to rhythmically tap their fingers during recall than when they are asked to remain still.
“As a second example, Ravizza (2003) reported that speakers are more likely to resolve tip-of-the-tongue states when they are asked to rhythmically tap their fingers during recall than when they are asked to remain still.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Ravizza (2003)
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Interpretationown dataOur data are consistent with the hypothesis that movement facilitates speech production by increasing activity in motor areas used in speech production.
“One way that movement has been hypothesized to facilitate speech production is by increasing activity in motor areas that are used in speech production (Ravizza, 2003). Our data are consistent with this hypothesis.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Ravizza, 2003
Not checked in the free run.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationMoving the hand in meaningless ways can improve fluency and lexical access.
“Thus, moving the hand in meaningless ways can improve fluency and lexical access.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
InterpretationreasoningBecause participants explained the same type of math problem on every trial, they needed access to a restricted pool of lexical items for their explanations.
“Second, our participants were asked to explain the same type of math problem on every trial and therefore needed access to a restricted pool of lexical items for their explanations.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationIndividuals manipulate aspects of their external worlds in order to ease their cognitive burden.
“Individuals have been found to manipulate aspects of their external worlds in order to ease their cognitive burden.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Kirsh & Maglio, 1994
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
Premisenone givenSpeakers often gesture with their hands while talking even when they do not appear to be having difficulty with lexical access or fluency.
“In sum, speakers often gesture with their hands while talking, even when they do not appear to be having difficulty with lexical access or fluency.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationTetris players rotate pieces on the screen in order to avoid rotating pieces mentally.
“For example, Tetris players rotate pieces on the screen in order to avoid rotating pieces mentally (Kirsh & Maglio, 1994), and map readers turn maps so that they are oriented in the direction of travel.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Kirsh & Maglio, 1994
Not checked in the free run.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisereasoningSpeech gives the value of a number.
“Gesturing highlights the location of a number; speech gives its value.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
Premisenone givenFor the most part, speech conveys information categorically, relying on discrete units that are systematically combined in rule-governed fashion.
“For the most part, speech conveys information categorically, relying on discrete units that are systematically combined in rule-governed fashion (but see Shintel, Nusbaum, & Okrent, 2006).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Premisenone givenMap readers turn maps so that they are oriented in the direction of travel.
“For example, Tetris players rotate pieces on the screen in order to avoid rotating pieces mentally (Kirsh & Maglio, 1994), and map readers turn maps so that they are oriented in the direction of travel.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
Premisenone givenIn the math factoring problems used in this study, the location of a number, more than its value, constrains the particular mathematical operations that must be performed on that number to solve the problem.
“For example, in the math factoring problems used in our study, the location of a number, more than its value, constrains the particular mathematical operations that must be performed on that number to solve the problem.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).
PremisecitationThe gestures that signers produce along with their signs are almost by definition analog in form.
“But signers gesture along with their signs (Emmorey, 1999), and those gestures are, almost by definition, analog in form.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Emmorey, 1999
Not checked in the free run.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisereasoningGesturing highlights the location of a number.
“Gesturing highlights the location of a number; speech gives its value.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationown dataIt is not moving the body per se that has an impact on working memory; it is using the body as a representational vehicle.
“In addition, our findings make it clear that it is not moving the body per se that has an impact on working memory—it’s using the body as a representational vehicle (see also Goldin-Meadow & Beilock, 2010).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Goldin-Meadow & Beilock, 2010
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationDifferences in management of attention are related to differences in working memory capacity.
“Differences in management of attention are related to differences in working memory capacity (Cowan et al., 2005; Engle, 2002).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Cowan et al., 2005
Not checked in the free run.
- cites Engle, 2002
Not checked in the free run.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationSign languages such as American Sign Language are composed of discrete categories systematically combined in rule-governed fashion.
“Although produced in the manual modality, sign languages such as American Sign Language are composed of discrete categories systematically combined in rule-governed fashion (Bellugi & Studdert-Kennedy, 1980; Klima & Bellugi, 1979).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Bellugi & Studdert-Kennedy, 1980
Not checked in the free run.
- cites Klima & Bellugi, 1979
Not checked in the free run.
The authors state this as an assumption.
All participants come from a population with normally distributed working memory capacities.
“under the assumption that all participants come from a population with normally distributed working memory capacities”
The paper relies on this without support.
Giving participants instructions increases demand on working memory.
“Moreover, giving participants instructions ought to increase demand on working memory, making it less likely to observe a beneficial effect of gesture on working memory and thus working against our hypothesis.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Participants in the Meaningful Movement condition only had to remember to do what one typically does on this task (i.e., gesture).
“in contrast to participants in the Meaningful Movement condition, who only had to remember to do what one typically does on this task (i.e., gesture).”
The paper relies on this without support.
Trials with more than 33 gestures are clearly responsive to an experimental instruction rather than typical behavior.
“when speakers were clearly producing behaviors to comply with an experimental instruction rather than simply producing the same behaviors they would have produced without instruction.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Non-juncture filled pauses are a valid measure of lexical access.
“participants in the Meaningless Movement condition showed a benefit on one measure of lexical access (non-juncture filled pauses)”
“gestures did not facilitate lexical access (as measured by non-juncture filled pauses)”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Making gestures can be used for cognitive offloading of information during problem-solving, leading to a reduction in working memory load.
“It has been shown that making gestures can be used for cognitive offloading of information during problem-solving, leading to a reduction in working memory load (Wagner-Cook et al. 2012; Goldin-Meadow et al. 2001; Ping and Goldin-Meadow 2010; Risko and Gilbert 2016).”
From Cognitive Architecture and Instructional Design: 20 Years Later (2019) · cites this paper as Wagner-Cook et al. 2012
The Discussion reports that gesturing reduces demand on working memory during math explanations. But in “How does gesture lighten the load? Potential mechanisms,” externalizing information is presented as a possibility, and the authors explicitly say their data do not pinpoint the mechanism. The claimed cognitive-offloading explanation is therefore not established by this paper. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Statistics recomputed
Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.
- Consistentz = 4.66reported p < .0001 · recomputed p < .001
“z = 4.66, p < .0001”
- Consistentz = 3.23reported p < .01 · recomputed p = .001
“z = 3.23, p < .01”
- Consistentz = 2.61reported p < .01 · recomputed p = .009
“z = 2.61, p < .01”
- Consistentz = 4.84reported p < .0001 · recomputed p < .001
“z = 4.84, p < .0001”
- Consistentz = 1.9reported p = .057 · recomputed p = .057
“z = 1.90, p = .057”
- Consistentz = 2.3reported p = .02 · recomputed p = .021
“z = 2.30, p = .02”
- Consistentz = 2.62reported p < .01 · recomputed p = .009
“z = 2.62, p < .01”
- Consistentz = 1.12reported n.s. · recomputed p = .263
“z = 1.12, ns”
- Consistentz = 0.77reported n.s. · recomputed p = .441
“z = 0.77, ns”
- Consistentz = 5.58reported p < .0001 · recomputed p < .001
“z = 5.58, p < .0001”
- Consistentz = 0.32reported n.s. · recomputed p = .749
“z = 0.32, ns”
- Consistentz = 1.65reported n.s. · recomputed p = .099
“z = 1.65, ns”
- Consistentz = 1.26reported n.s. · recomputed p = .208
“z = 1.26, ns”
- Consistentz = 2.01reported p = .044 · recomputed p = .044
“z = 2.01, p = .044”
- Consistentz = 1.76reported p = .079 · recomputed p = .078
“z = 1.76, p = .079”
- Consistentz = 2.93reported p < .01 · recomputed p = .003
“z = 2.93, p < .01”
- Consistentz = 2.7reported p < .01 · recomputed p = .007
“z = 2.70, p < .01”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Working-memory result attributed to two different figures
MinorThe text first identifies Figure 2 as showing the working-memory difference between conditions, but later attributes that same difference to Figure 1. Figure 1 is described elsewhere as an example of gestures.
“To explore whether these differences in verbal production could account for the difference in demand on working memory shown in Figure 1”
“More importantly, as can be seen in Figure 2, participants were more likely to remember the working memory items when they gestured while explaining the problem than when they produced meaningless movements”
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Sorted by citations
Cognitive Architecture and Instructional Design: 20 Years Later
Sweller, J., van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Paas, F. (2019) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-019-09465-5 · Cited by 2,337 · see citing works
Cognitive-Load Theory: Methods to Manage Working Memory Load in the Learning of Complex Tasks
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When our hands help us understand: A meta-analysis into the effects of gesture on comprehension.
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Cognitive Load Theory and Human Movement: Towards an Integrated Model of Working Memory
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Gesturing makes memories that last
Cook, S. W., Yip, T. K., & Susan Goldin-meadow, A. (2010) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1016/j.jml.2010.07.002 · Cited by 173 · see citing works
Self-citationMavilidi, M. F., Ruiter, M., Schmidt, M., Okely, A. D., Loyens, S. M. M., Chandler, P., & PAAS, F. G. W. C. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02079 · Cited by 162 · see citing works
Clough, S., & Duff, M. C. (2020) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2020.00323 · Cited by 157 · see citing works
Gesture as representational action: A paper about function
Novack, M. A., & Susan Goldin-meadow, A. (2016) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-016-1145-z · Cited by 144 · see citing works
When Speech Stops, Gesture Stops: Evidence From Developmental and Crosslinguistic Comparisons
Graziano, M., & Gullberg, M. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00879 · Cited by 131 · see citing works
Using actions to enhance memory: effects of enactment, gestures, and exercise on human memory
Madan, C. R., & Singhal, A. (2012) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00507 · Cited by 120 · see citing works
Andrä, C., Mathias, B., Schwager, A., Macedonia, M., & von Kriegstein, K. (2020) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-020-09527-z · Cited by 94 · see citing works
Support of mathematical thinking through embodied cognition: Nondigital and digital approaches
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“Air Anatomy” – Teaching Complex Spatial Anatomy Using Simple Hand Gestures
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Minds Online: The Interface between Web Science, Cognitive Science and the Philosophy of Mind
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Teaching Visually Impaired College Students in Introductory Statistics
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Cognitive Effect of Tracing Gesture in the Learning from Mathematics Worked Examples
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A Review of Studies Supporting Metaphorical Embodiment
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Why Your Body Can Jog Your Mind
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Does (Non‐)Meaningful Sensori‐Motor Engagement Promote Learning With Animated Physical Systems?
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Teachers’ Gestures and How They Matter
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- Authors
- Cook, S. W., Yip, T. K., & Goldin-Meadow, S.
- Affiliations
- University of Iowa (US)
- University of Chicago (US)
- Corresponding author
- Cook, Susan Wagner
- ORCID
- Cook, Susan Wagner
- Venue
- Language and Cognitive Processes
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2012-05
- Volume
- 27
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 594-610
- ISSN
- 0169-0965 (ISSN-L)
- 1464-0732
- PMC
- PMC3658147
- OpenAlex
- W1980250657
- Cited by
- 192
- References
- 51
- Citations by year
- 2026: 11 · 2025: 9 · 2024: 14 · 2023: 15 · 2022: 21 · 2021: 27 · 2020: 15 · 2019: 12 · 2018: 21 · 2017: 15 · 2016: 8 · 2015: 7 · 2014: 4 · 2013: 9 · 2012: 3
- FWCI
- 10.39
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Language and Cognitive Processes (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (R01HD047450)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Hearing Impairment and Communication
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neurobiology of Language and Bilingualism
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Language and Linguistics › Language, Discourse, Communication Strategies
- Keywords
- gesturing, working memory, mathematical problem solving, speech-gesture coordination, letter recall, verbal explanation
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