Gesturing makes learning last
Open accessAbstract
The gestures children spontaneously produce when explaining a task predict whether they will subsequently learn that task. Why? Gesture might simply reflect a child's readiness to learn a particular task. Alternatively, gesture might itself play a role in learning the task. To investigate these alternatives, we experimentally manipulated children's gesture during instruction in a new mathematical concept. We found that requiring children to gesture while learning the new concept helped them retain the knowledge they had gained during instruction. In contrast, requiring children to speak, but not gesture, while learning the concept had no effect on solidifying learning. Gesturing can thus play a causal role in learning, perhaps by giving learners an alternative, embodied way of representing new ideas. We may be able to improve children's learning just by encouraging them to move their hands.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Instructing children to make particular kinds of gestures while practicing solving mathematics problems themselves after having received explanations by the teacher advanced their learning compared with children who were instructed only to speak during practice.
“A study by Cook et al. (2008) revealed that instructing children to make particular kinds of gestures while practicing solving mathematics problems themselves after having received explanations by the teacher, advanced their learning compared with children who were instructed only to speak during practice.”
From An Evolutionary Upgrade of Cognitive Load Theory: Using the Human Motor System and Collaboration to Support the Learning of Complex Cognitive Tasks (2012) · cites this paper as Cook et al. 2008
Cites
Barsalou, L. W. (1999) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x99002149 · Cited by 6,887 · see citing works
Glenberg, A. M., & Kaschak, M. P. (2002) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/bf03196313 · Cited by 2,361 · see citing works
Mayer, R. E., & Moreno, R. (1998) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.90.2.312 · Cited by 1,315 · see citing works
Deictic codes for the embodiment of cognition
Ballard, D. H., Hayhoe, M. M., Pook, P. K., & Rao, R. P. N. (1997) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x97001611 · Cited by 1,082 · see citing works
Dependence on REM Sleep of Overnight Improvement of a Perceptual Skill
Karni, A., Tanne, D., Rubenstein, B. S., Askenasy, J. J. M., & Sagi, D. (1994) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.8036518 · Cited by 1,002 · see citing works
Explaining Math: Gesturing Lightens the Load
Goldin-Meadow, S., Nusbaum, H., Kelly, S. D., & Wagner, S. (2001) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/1467-9280.00395 · Cited by 842 · see citing works
Self-citationOn the Relationship between Task Performance and Associated Verbalizable Knowledge
Berry, D. C., & Broadbent, D. E. (1984) · The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A · doi:10.1080/14640748408402156 · Cited by 761 · see citing works
Symbol Grounding and Meaning: A Comparison of High-Dimensional and Embodied Theories of Meaning
Glenberg, A. M., & Robertson, D. A. (2000) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1006/jmla.2000.2714 · Cited by 755 · see citing works
Seeing, acting, understanding: Motor resonance in language comprehension.
Zwaan, R. A., & Taylor, L. J. (2006) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.135.1.1 · Cited by 728 · see citing works
Ziegel, E. R., & Girden, E. (1993) · Technometrics · doi:10.1080/00401706.1993.10485382 · Cited by 722 · see citing works
Thoughts beyond words: When language overshadows insight.
Schooler, J. W., Ohlsson, S., & Brooks, K. (1993) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.122.2.166 · Cited by 694 · see citing works
Gesture and the process of speech production: We think, therefore we gesture
Alibali, M. W., Kita, S., & Young, A. (2000) · Language and Cognitive Processes · doi:10.1080/016909600750040571 · Cited by 639 · see citing works
The mismatch between gesture and speech as an index of transitional knowledge
Church, R. B., & Susan Goldin-meadow, A. (1986) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/0010-0277(86)90053-3 · Cited by 622 · see citing works
Sleep forms memory for finger skills
Fischer, S., Hallschmid, M., Elsner, A. L., & Born, J. (2002) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.182178199 · Cited by 589 · see citing works
Consolidation during sleep of perceptual learning of spoken language
Fenn, K. M., Nusbaum, H. C., & Margoliash, D. (2003) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature01951 · Cited by 463 · see citing works
Alibali, M. W., & Goldin‐Meadow, S. (1993) · Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1006/cogp.1993.1012 · Cited by 454 · see citing works
Self-citationEye Movements and Problem Solving
Grant, E. R., & Spivey, M. J. (2003) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/1467-9280.02454 · Cited by 446 · see citing works
Why people gesture when they speak
Iverson, J. M., & Goldin‐Meadow, S. (1998) · Nature · doi:10.1038/24300 · Cited by 430 · see citing works
Self-citationActivity and Imagined Activity Can Enhance Young Children's Reading Comprehension.
Glenberg, A. M., Gutierrez, T., Levin, J. R., Japuntich, S., & Kaschak, M. P. (2004) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.96.3.424 · Cited by 401 · see citing works
Lexical competition and the acquisition of novel words
Gaskell, M. G., & Dumay, N. (2003) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/s0010-0277(03)00070-2 · Cited by 399 · see citing works
On the generality of some memory laws
COHEN, R. L. (1981) · Scandinavian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9450.1981.tb00402.x · Cited by 399 · see citing works
Making children gesture brings out implicit knowledge and leads to learning
Broaders, S. C., Cook, S. W., Mitchell, Z., & Goldin-Meadow, S. (2007) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.136.4.539 · Cited by 397 · see citing works
Self-citationTeachers’ gestures facilitate students’ learning: A lesson in symmetry
Valenzeno, L., Alibali, M. W., & Klatzky, R. L. (2003) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0361-476x(02)00007-3 · Cited by 370 · see citing works
Transitional knowledge in the acquisition of concepts
Perry, M., Church, R. B., & Susan Goldin-meadow, A. (1988) · Cognitive Development · doi:10.1016/0885-2014(88)90021-4 · Cited by 350 · see citing works
Children Learn When Their Teacher's Gestures and Speech Differ
Singer, M. A., & Susan Goldin-meadow, A. (2005) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.0956-7976.2005.00786.x · Cited by 333 · see citing works
Assessment of Cognitive Load in Multimedia Learning Using Dual-Task Methodology
Brünken, R., Steinbacher, S., Plass, J. L., & Leutner, D. (2002) · Experimental Psychology (formerly Zeitschrift für Experimentelle Psychologie) · doi:10.1027//1618-3169.49.2.109 · Cited by 333 · see citing works
The Role of Gesture in Learning: Do Children Use Their Hands to Change Their Minds?
Cook, S. W., & Susan Goldin-meadow, A. (2006) · Journal of Cognition and Development · doi:10.1207/s15327647jcd0702_4 · Cited by 321 · see citing works
Self-citationGesture in Spatial Cognition: Expressing, Communicating, and Thinking About Spatial Information
Alibali, M. W. (2005) · Spatial Cognition and Computation · doi:10.1207/s15427633scc0504_2 · Cited by 319 · see citing works
Leroi‐Gourhan, A., Berger, A. B., & White, R. A. (1993) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 306 · see citing works
Shuttling Between Depictive Models and Abstract Rules: Induction and Fallback
Schwartz, D. L., & Black, J. B. (1996) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1207/s15516709cog2004_1 · Cited by 275 · see citing works
Probing the mental representation of gesture: Is handwaving spatial?
Wagner, S., Nusbaum, H. C., & Goldin‐Meadow, S. (2004) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1016/j.jml.2004.01.002 · Cited by 234 · see citing works
Self-citationZiegel, E. R., & Girden, E. (1993) · Technometrics · doi:10.2307/1270301 · Cited by 222 · see citing works
The Role of Gesture in Bilingual Education: Does Gesture Enhance Learning?
Church, R. B., Ayman‐Nolley, S., & Mahootian, S. (2004) · International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism · doi:10.1080/13670050408667815 · Cited by 198 · see citing works
Microdevelopment: Transition Processes in Development and Learning
Granott, N., & Parziale, J. (2009) · Cited by 179 · see citing works
More gestures than answers: Children learning about balance.
Pine, K. J., Lufkin, N., & Messer, D. J. (2004) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.40.6.1059 · Cited by 170 · see citing works
At a Loss From Words: Verbal Overshadowing of Perceptual Memories
Schooler, J. W., Fiore, S. M., & Brandimonte, M. A. (1997) · Psychology of Learning and Motivation · doi:10.1016/s0079-7421(08)60505-8 · Cited by 157 · see citing works
Sleep enhances explicit recollection in recognition memory
Drosopoulos, S., Wagner, U., & Born, J. (2005) · Learning & Memory · doi:10.1101/lm.83805 · Cited by 128 · see citing works
Giving Memory a Hand: Instructing Children to Gesture Enhances their Event Recall
Stevanoni, E., & Salmon, K. (2005) · Journal of Nonverbal Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10919-005-7721-y · Cited by 108 · see citing works
Gesture and Speech in Spontaneous and Rehearsed Narratives
Chawla, P., & Krauss, R. M. (1994) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1006/jesp.1994.1027 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
Learning dialogue with and without movement
Noice, H., & Noice, T. (2001) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03196411 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Looking at the hands through time: A microgenetic perspective on learning and instruction
Goldin‐Meadow, S., & Alibali, M. W. (2002) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511489709.004 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Self-citationLong-term Retention of Theatrical Roles
Noice, H., & Noice, T. (1999) · Memory · doi:10.1080/096582199387977 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Memory effects of motor activation in subject-performed tasks and sign language
Essen, J. D. V., & Nilsson, L. (2003) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/bf03196504 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Nonverbal overload: A theoretical argument for the causes of Zoom fatigue.
Bailenson, J. N. (2021) · Technology, Mind, and Behavior · doi:10.1037/tmb0000030 · Cited by 1,203 · see citing works
Eight Ways to Promote Generative Learning
Fiorella, L., & Mayer, R. E. (2016) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-015-9348-9 · Cited by 832 · see citing works
Paas, F., & Sweller, J. (2012) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-011-9179-2 · Cited by 502 · see citing works
Making children gesture brings out implicit knowledge and leads to learning
Broaders, S. C., Cook, S. W., Mitchell, Z., & Goldin-Meadow, S. (2007) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.136.4.539 · Cited by 397 · see citing works
Self-citationLearning words by hand: Gesture's role in predicting vocabulary development
Rowe, M. L., Özçalışkan, Ş., & Goldin-Meadow, S. (2008) · First Language · doi:10.1177/0142723707088310 · Cited by 315 · see citing works
Gesturing Saves Cognitive Resources When Talking About Nonpresent Objects
Ping, R., & Goldin‐Meadow, S. (2010) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1111/j.1551-6709.2010.01102.x · Cited by 230 · see citing works
Self-citationLearning to talk in a gesture-rich world: early communication in Italian vs. American children
Iverson, J. M., Capirci, O., Volterra, V., & Goldin-Meadow, S. (2008) · First Language · doi:10.1177/0142723707087736 · Cited by 213 · see citing works
Self-citationGestures, but not meaningless movements, lighten working memory load when explaining math
Cook, S. W., Yip, T. K., & Goldin-Meadow, S. (2012) · Language and Cognitive Processes · doi:10.1080/01690965.2011.567074 · Cited by 192 · see citing works
Self-citationGoldin‐Meadow, S. (2011) · WIREs Cognitive Science · doi:10.1002/wcs.132 · Cited by 134 · see citing works
Self-citationMaking Sense of Generative Learning
Fiorella, L. (2023) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-023-09769-7 · Cited by 135 · see citing works
Song, H. S., Pusic, M., Nick, M. W., Sarpel, U., Plass, J. L., & Kalet, A. L. (2014) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2013.09.017 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
The Benefits of Movement for Youth: A Whole Child Approach
Savina, E., Garrity, K., Kenny, P., & Doerr, C. (2016) · Contemporary School Psychology · doi:10.1007/s40688-016-0084-z · Cited by 28 · see citing works
- Authors
- Cook, S. W., Mitchell, Z., & Goldin-Meadow, S.
- Affiliations
- University of Rochester (US)
- University of Chicago (US)
- Corresponding author
- Cook, Susan Wagner
- ORCID
- Cook, Susan Wagner
- Venue
- Cognition
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2008-02
- Volume
- 106
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 1047-1058
- ISSN
- 0010-0277 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC2265003
- OpenAlex
- W2134774969
- Cited by
- 500
- References
- 43
- Citations by year
- 2026: 16 · 2025: 15 · 2024: 24 · 2023: 26 · 2022: 26 · 2021: 31 · 2020: 29 · 2019: 27 · 2018: 48 · 2017: 37 · 2016: 21 · 2015: 31 · 2014: 39 · 2013: 27 · 2012: 19
- FWCI
- 16.98
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Cognition (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (R01HD047450, R01-HD47450)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Cognitive and developmental aspects of mathematical skills
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Hearing Impairment and Communication
- Keywords
- gesture, learning retention, mathematics learning, embodied cognition, children's learning, verbal instructions, knowledge retention
- MeSH terms
- Child, Female, Gestures, Humans, Learning, Male
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
