External-Focus Feedback Benefits Free-Throw Learning in Children
Abstract
PURPOSE: Considerable research supports the motor-learning advantage associated with an external focus of attention; however, very few studies have attempted to generalize these findings to children especially with attentional focus feedback. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to determine the effect of attentional focus feedback on motor learning in children. METHOD: Boys (n = 14) and girls (n = 14) aged 9 to 11 years old were randomly assigned to 1 of 2 gender-stratified groups: (a) internal-focus feedback or (b) external-focus feedback. Following initial instructions and task demonstration, participants performed 100 modified free throws over 2 days while receiving feedback statements respective to their attentional focus condition. Approximately 24 hr later, participants performed a retention test consisting of 20 additional free throws. Participants were also asked to respond to a retrospective verbal report at the end of each day to serve as a manipulation check. RESULTS: Results of the analysis revealed a statistically significant learning advantage for participants receiving external-focus feedback, and retrospective verbal reports provide support for the self-invoking trigger and constrained action hypotheses. CONCLUSIONS: Future research should continue to incorporate retrospective verbal reports and explore potential causal links between internal attentional focus and self-evaluation.
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Children given internal-focus feedback report more self-evaluative content than those given external-focus feedback.
“Children between the ages of 9 and 11 years practiced basketball free-throws and were given internal-or external-focus feedback.In response to the question about what they were thinking at the conclusion of the experiment, those in the internal focus group reported more self-evaluative content (36-57%) than did participants in the external focus group (7-21%).”
From Optimizing performance through intrinsic motivation and attention for learning: The OPTIMAL theory of motor learning (2016) · cites this paper as Perreault and French (2015)
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Wulf, G., & Lewthwaite, R. (2016) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-015-0999-9 · Cited by 1,238 · see citing works
- Authors
- Perreault, M. E., & French, K. E.
- Affiliations
- University of Southern Mississippi (US)
- University of South Carolina (US)
- Corresponding author
- Perreault, Melanie E.
- Venue
- Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2015-07-31
- Volume
- 86
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 422-427
- ISSN
- 0034-5377 (ISSN-L)
- 0270-1367
- 2168-3824
- OpenAlex
- W1547307910
- Cited by
- 52
- References
- 25
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 6 · 2024: 2 · 2023: 7 · 2022: 7 · 2021: 7 · 2020: 7 · 2019: 2 · 2018: 4 · 2017: 6 · 2016: 2 · 2015: 1
- FWCI
- 10.96
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Aquila Digital Community (University of Southern Mississippi) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Sport Psychology and Performance
- Health Sciences › Health Professions › Physical Therapy, Sports Therapy and Rehabilitation › Sports and Physical Education Research
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Motor Control and Adaptation
- Keywords
- external attention, internal focus, motor learning, feedback, free throw shooting, children, retention, self-assessment, constrained action hypothesis
- MeSH terms
- Attention, Child, Female, Humans, Learning, Male, Motor Skills, Retrospective Studies, Feedback, Psychological
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