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Cited by 1,238Sport Psychology and PerformanceMotor Control and AdaptationSports and Physical Education Research

Optimizing performance through intrinsic motivation and attention for learning: The OPTIMAL theory of motor learning

Open access
Wulf, Gabriele, Lewthwaite, Rebecca·2016·Psychonomic Bulletin & Review
DOI 10.3758/s13423-015-0999-9
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Abstract

Effective motor performance is important for surviving and thriving, and skilled movement is critical in many activities. Much theorizing over the past few decades has focused on how certain practice conditions affect the processing of task-related information to affect learning. Yet, existing theoretical perspectives do not accommodate significant recent lines of evidence demonstrating motivational and attentional effects on performance and learning. These include research on (a) conditions that enhance expectancies for future performance, (b) variables that influence learners' autonomy, and (c) an external focus of attention on the intended movement effect. We propose the OPTIMAL (Optimizing Performance through Intrinsic Motivation and Attention for Learning) theory of motor learning. We suggest that motivational and attentional factors contribute to performance and learning by strengthening the coupling of goals to actions. We provide explanations for the performance and learning advantages of these variables on psychological and neuroscientific grounds. We describe a plausible mechanism for expectancy effects rooted in responses of dopamine to the anticipation of positive experience and temporally associated with skill practice. Learner autonomy acts perhaps largely through an enhanced expectancy pathway. Furthermore, we consider the influence of an external focus for the establishment of efficient functional connections across brain networks that subserve skilled movement. We speculate that enhanced expectancies and an external focus propel performers' cognitive and motor systems in productive "forward" directions and prevent "backsliding" into self- and non-task focused states. Expected success presumably breeds further success and helps consolidate memories. We discuss practical implications and future research directions.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

The paper proposes the OPTIMAL theory of motor learning: practice conditions that enhance expectancies, support learner autonomy, and promote an external focus of attention optimize performance and learning by strengthening goal-action coupling. It reviews behavioral and neuroscientific evidence and proposes dopaminergic and functional-connectivity mechanisms.

Key findings

  • Enhanced expectancies improve motor performance and learning: feedback after “good” trials, positive social-comparative feedback, self-modeling, easy success criteria, perceived larger golf holes, and hypnosis-like suggestions all facilitated learning; for example, an easy goal in a visuomotor adaptation task enhanced 24-hour retention even when practice performance did not differ.
  • Autonomy support and choice enhance learning: self-controlled feedback, self-controlled use of assistive devices, choice of practice order, and even incidental choices such as golf-ball color improved retention; autonomy-supportive instructional language produced better cricket-bowling learning and higher self-efficacy than controlling language.
  • An external focus on the intended movement effect is reliably superior to an internal focus on body movements: it improves balance, accuracy, force production, speed/endurance, and movement form while reducing EMG activity, oxygen consumption, and heart rate, consistent with greater automaticity.
  • The proposed mechanism is that motivational and attentional factors strengthen goal-action coupling; enhanced expectancies are linked to dopaminergic responses, and external focus/autonomy may facilitate efficient switching from default-mode to motor networks. The paper lists 12 predictions in Table 1.

Methods

  • Theoretical/review paper; no new empirical experiment or primary dataset is reported.
  • It synthesizes prior behavioral motor-learning studies and cognitive, affective, and neuroscientific evidence, with learning assessed mainly through retention and transfer tests.
  • It proposes the OPTIMAL theory, describes plausible psychological and neural mechanisms, and discusses practical implications and future research directions.

Limitations

  • The authors state that future research must close empirical gaps, including eliciting dopaminergic responses with varied rewards/positive experiences and capturing network development and dynamic switching; dopamine measurement is challenging because it cannot currently be assessed via salivary or other less invasive methods than PET paired with dopamine-antagonist medication.
  • The authors describe the self-invoking trigger idea as “still somewhat speculative,” and the proposed dopaminergic and network-switching mechanisms are presented as plausible rather than fully tested.
  • Evident from the text: this is a narrative theoretical synthesis, not a systematic review or meta-analysis, and it does not provide a unified empirical test of the OPTIMAL theory across the reviewed tasks and populations.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.3758/s13423-015-0999-9

Cites

359 of 359 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 264 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingcitation

    Even without explicit internal focus instructions, learners tend to focus on movement form and body movements.

    “Interestingly, interviews have shown that, even without explicit internal focus instructions, learners tend to focus on movement form and body movements (Pascua, Wulf, and Lewthwaite, 2015).”
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    • cites Pascua, Wulf, and Lewthwaite, 2015 source

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  • Findingcitation

    Asking performers to reflect on their task-related experience degrades performance or learning relative to a control condition.

    “In two experiments, asking performers to reflect on their task-related experience resulted in degraded performance (Experiment 1) or learning (Experiment 2) relative to the control condition (Figure 7).”
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    • cites McKay et al. (2015) source

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  • Findingcitation

    Athletes also tend to focus on movement form and body movements.

    “This includes athletes (Guss-West & Wulf, 2016;Porter, Wu, & Partridge, 2010;Stoate et al., 2012).”
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    • cites Guss-West & Wulf, 2016

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    • cites Porter, Wu, & Partridge, 2010

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    • cites Stoate et al., 2012 source

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  • Findingcitation

    Children given internal-focus feedback report more self-evaluative content than those given external-focus feedback.

    “Children between the ages of 9 and 11 years practiced basketball free-throws and were given internal-or external-focus feedback.In response to the question about what they were thinking at the conclusion of the experiment, those in the internal focus group reported more self-evaluative content (36-57%) than did participants in the external focus group (7-21%).”
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    • cites Perreault and French (2015) source

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  • Findingreasoning

    External focus enhances movement efficiency, as shown by reduced muscular activity, heart rate, and oxygen consumption.

    “Moreover, the enhanced outcome is achieved with less effort, as indicated by reduced muscular activity, heart rate, oxygen consumption, and so forth.”
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  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 31
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    Findingcitation

    An external focus on the primary task is necessary to enhance performance, whereas an external focus on a secondary task does not enhance performance.

    “Indeed, a recent study by Russell, Porter, and Campbell (2014) showed nicely that an external focus on the primary task (dart throwing) was necessary to enhance performance, whereas an external focus on a simultaneously performed secondary task-which should have directed attention away from the self-was not able to enhance performance (similar to internal foci on either task).”
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    • cites Russell, Porter, and Campbell (2014) source

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    Findingcitation

    Skilled Gaelic football players attempting free kicks with their dominant and nondominant feet performed with greater kicking accuracy with a motivational self-talk statement (dominant limb) and equally well with motivational or instructional self-talk using their nondominant foot.

    “Hardy and colleagues found that skilled Gaelic football players attempting free kicks with their dominant and nondominant feet performed with greater kicking accuracy with a motivational self-talk statement (dominant limb) and equally well with motivational or instructional self-talk using their nondominant foot (Hardy et al., 2015).”
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    Findingnone given

    After a mindfulness induction, participants reported greater use of an external focus of attention compared with control group participants.

    “Interestingly, after a mindfulness induction participants also reported a greater use of an external focus of attention compared with control group participants.”
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    Findingcitation

    A temporary association of self and objects assigned to participants engages the mPFC more than other objects.

    “Also, a temporary association of self and objects that were assigned to participants, for example, engaged the mPFC more than other objects (Kim & Johnson, 2012).”
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    Findingcitation

    Two weeks of mindfulness intervention focused on breath training in novices is associated with increased functional connectivity between the default mode network and the salience network.

    “Doll and colleagues (Doll, Hölzel, Boucard, Wohlschläger, & Sorg, 2015) found evidence that 2 weeks of mindfulness intervention focused on breath training (a component of mindfulness training) in novices of this technique was associated with increased functional connectivity between the default mode network and the salience network”
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    • cites Doll, Hölzel, Boucard, Wohlschläger, & Sorg, 2015 source

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    Findingcitation

    Self-efficacy was enhanced in parallel with performance results in the Chang et al. study.

    “Self-efficacy was enhanced in parallel with performance results.”
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    • cites Chang et al., 2014

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    Premisecitation

    People who view abilities as fixed tend to be more concerned with proving ability and perceive errors or negative feedback as a threat to the self.

    “In general, people who believe that (motor) abilities are relatively fixed (so-called entity theorists), tend to be more concerned with proving their ability, and they perceive errors or negative feedback as a threat to the self, because they reveal a limited capacity or lack of ability.”
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    Premiseown data

    Self-efficacy was lower in the 4-ms group.

    “Self-efficacy was degraded in the 4-ms group as well.”
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    Premisecitation

    Self-modeling increased intrinsic motivation and satisfaction with performance.

    “In addition, self-modeling resulted in greater intrinsic motivation and satisfaction with performance (Clark & Ste-Marie, 2007).”
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    Premisecitation

    Favorable feedback enhanced running efficiency and reduced perceived effort in experienced runners.

    “Stoate, Wulf, and Lewthwaite (2012) found that favorable feedback enhanced running efficiency in experienced runners, in addition to reducing perceptions of effort.”
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    • cites Stoate, Wulf, and Lewthwaite (2012) source

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    Premisecitation

    Positive normative feedback increased tolerance for sustained effort, increased self-efficacy, and lowered perceived exertion compared with negative feedback and control conditions.

    “A study by Hutchinson, Sherman, Martinovic, and Tenenbaum (2008) showed greater tolerance for sustained effort in a continuous force production task, increased self-efficacy, and lower perceived exertion as a function of positive normative feedback compared with both negative feedback and control conditions.”
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    • cites Hutchinson, Sherman, Martinovic, and Tenenbaum (2008) source

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    Premisecitation

    Practicing with a perceived larger hole enhanced both self-efficacy and learning (retention without illusions) compared with a perceived smaller hole.

    “Both self-efficacy and learning (i.e., retention performance without optical illusions) were enhanced in the group that practiced with a perceived larger hole compared with a group that experienced a smaller-looking hole (Figure 2).”
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    • cites Chauvel, Wulf, and Maquestiaux (2015) source

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    Premisereasoning

    A new theory of motor skill learning that encompasses recent findings is needed.

    “Given the considerable advances in our understanding of motor skill learning over the past few decades, a new theory that encompasses new findings-some of which are the result of new methodologies-is needed.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

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    Premisereasoning

    Conditions that enhance learners' performance expectancies or support their need to feel autonomous facilitate motor learning.

    “It is therefore perhaps not surprising that conditions that enhance learners' performance expectancies (see next subsection,”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

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    Premisecitation

    Telling older adults that active and experienced people like them typically did well on a balance task increased self-efficacy and produced superior learning compared with no such information.

    “Compared with not receiving this information (control group), this simple statement resulted in increased self-efficacy and superior learning.”
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    • cites Wulf et al., 2012, Experiment 2 source

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    Interpretationreasoning

    Experimental settings are public places and presumably induce worries about one's performance or abilities being observed, measured, and compared with others, leading to less-than-optimal learning.

    “Experimental settings after all are public places and as such presumably induce worries about one's performance or abilities being observed, measured, and compared with those of others-leading to less-than-optimal learning.”
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    Premisecitation

    The prospect of monetary incentive improves movement performance in persons with Parkinson's disease and increases force production in healthy participants.

    “For instance, the prospect of a monetary incentive has been shown to improve movement performance in persons with Parkinson's disease (Kojovic, Mir, Trender-Gerhard, Schneider, Pareés, Edwards et al., 2014;Kühn, Brücke, Hübl, Schneider, Kupsch, Eusebio et al., 2008) and to increase force production in healthy participants (Pessiglione, Schmidt, Draganski, Kalisch, Lau, Dolan et al., 2007).”
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    • cites Kojovic et al., 2014

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    Interpretationreasoning

    In most cases, positive affect and positive cognitions are likely co-effects of the same positive events or experiences.

    “In most cases, positive affect and positive cognitions would likely be co-effects of the same positive events or experiences.”
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    Premisecitation

    In 4-year-old children, feedback implying inherent ability versus effort led to diminished motivation and more negative self-evaluations after later mistakes.

    “When confronted with mistakes later, children who had received feedback that induced an entity as opposed to an incremental theory, showed diminished motivation and more negative self-evaluations.”
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    • cites Cimpian et al., 2007 source

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    Interpretationreasoning

    These preferences may reflect people's implicit knowledge of the beneficial consequences of this type of feedback for motivation, performance, and learning.

    “While these preferences may simply imply a preference for states of positive over negative affect without performance implications, they may reflect people's (implicit) knowledge of the beneficial consequences of this type of feedback for motivation, performance, and learning.”
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    Premisecitation

    The acquirable-skill group showed greater improvement in balance across retention trials and greater automaticity in movement control than the inherent-ability group.

    “The acquirable-skill group showed greater improvement in balance performance across retention trials, as well as greater automaticity in the control of their movements (i.e., frequency of movement adjustments) than did the inherent-ability group.”
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    • cites Wulf & Lewthwaite, 2009

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    Premisecitation

    Positive mood inductions benefited cognitive processing in persons with Parkinson's disease; increased positive affect after watching a Chaplin clip was accompanied by enhanced performance on a subsequent decision-learning task.

    “Ridderinkhof and colleagues (Ridderinkhof, van Wouwe, Band, Wylie, Van der Stigchel, van Hees, Buitenweg et al., 2012) found that positive mood inductions benefited cognitive processing in persons with Parkinson's disease.Participants showed increased positive affect after watching a Charlie Chaplin slapstick film clip and enhanced performance on a subsequent decision-learning task.”
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    • cites Ridderinkhof et al., 2012

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    Premisecitation

    Control participants without ability-related instructions performed and learned similarly to the inherent-ability group and less effectively/efficiently than those viewing the task as learnable.

    “Control group participants without ability-related instructions demonstrated similar performance and learning as the inherent-ability group and therefore were less effective and efficient than participants who viewed the task as a learnable skill.”
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    • cites Wulf & Lewthwaite, 2009

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    Interpretationreasoning

    Heightened positive affect is expected with desired outcomes including performance success, satisfaction of fundamental psychological needs, and extrinsic reward.

    “One would expect heightened positive affect with desired outcomes including performance success, satisfaction of fundamental psychological needs, and extrinsic reward.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

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    Premisecitation

    Heightened expectations result from performance accomplishments, but expectations have also been experimentally and prospectively linked to motor performance.

    “Heightened expectations result from performance accomplishments (Bandura, 1977), but expectations have also been experimentally and prospectively linked to motor performance (Feltz, Chow, & Hepler, 2008;Hutchinson et al., 2008;Moritz et al., 2000;Neiss, 1989;Wulf et al., 2012).”
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    • cites Feltz, Chow, & Hepler, 2008

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    Premisecitation

    Berridge contends dopamine is associated with wanting rewards rather than hedonic liking; this might suggest positive affect per se may be rewarding but not the driver of a large range of rewarding effects on performance and learning.

    “Berridge (2007) contends that dopamine is not associated with the hedonic”
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    Premisecitation

    Instructions inducing an entity theory increased nervousness before and during balancing, more thoughts about performance and ability, and greater focus on body movements during retention and transfer.

    “Using a stabilometer balance task, these authors found that instructions inducing an entity theory led to an increase in participants' nervousness before and while balancing (during practice), as well as more thoughts about their performance and ability, and a greater focus on body movements (during retention and transfer).”
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    • cites Wulf, Lewthwaite, & Hooyman, 2013 source

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    Interpretationreasoning

    These findings suggest control conditions are not neutral, or at least not affirmatively positive.

    “These findings suggest that control conditions are not, in fact,”
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    Premisecitation

    All groups performed similarly immediately after practice, but 6 hours later the rewarded group outperformed the other two and showed gains after 24 hours and 30 days.

    “Interestingly, all groups demonstrated similar performances immediately after the practice phase.However, 6 hours later, the rewarded group outperformed the other two groups and, in contrast to the punished and control groups, even showed performance gains after 24 hours and 30 days.”
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    • cites Abe et al., 2011 source

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    Interpretationreasoning

    Individuals who believe skills are acquirable are more likely to treat a task as an opportunity to improve and to see errors as temporary and part of learning.

    “In contrast, individuals who believe that skills are acquirable are more likely to approach a task as an opportunity to improve, and to see errors as temporary and as being part of learning.”
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    Interpretationcitation

    Conceptions of ability may affect how people frame and interpret performance fluctuations as successes and failures, which may influence motor performance and learning.

    “Conceptions of abilities may affect the extent to which people frame and interpret performance fluctuations as successes and failures, which may in turn influence motor performance and learning.”
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    Interpretationreasoning

    Action-specific perception may serve as preparation for task performance, sustaining focus on achievable elements and reducing concern about abilities to meet demands, thus freeing self-regulatory resources for performance.

    “Action-specific perception may serve as preparation for task performance, potentially sustaining focus on achievable elements and reducing concern about abilities to meet demands, thus freeing up self-regulatory resources for performance.”
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    Premisecitation

    While expectation of reward has received particular attention as a trigger for a dopamine response, other related cognitive-affective states are supported as well.

    “While the expectation of reward has received particular attention as a trigger for a dopamine response (Schultz, 2013), other related cognitive-affective states are supported as well (Schultz, 2010).”
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    Interpretationcitation

    Perceived task demands can be altered because of a performer's confidence in his or her capabilities or in a placebo's effect.

    “Perceived task demands, therefore, can in effect be altered because of a performer's confidence in his or her capabilities (Chauvel et al.) or in a placebo's effect (Piedimonte et al.).”
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    Premisecitation

    Self-efficacy expectations influence goals set and generate goal setting.

    “Self-efficacy expectations influence goals set and generate goal setting (Theodorakis, 1995;Locke & Latham, 2006).”
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    Premisecitation

    Rewards' value is defined by the needs of the individual decision maker and is intrinsically subjective; both subjective perception and physical presence of a stimulus are necessary to evoke dopamine responses, whereas physical presence alone is insufficient.

    “Although rewards have objective, physical, and chemical properties, their value is defined by the needs of the individual decision maker and thus intrinsically subjective.…The data suggest that both subjective perception and physical presence of a stimulus are necessary to evoke dopamine responses, whereas physical presence alone is insufficient”
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    • cites Schultz, 2013 source

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    Premisecitation

    These triggers and states include novelty and other violations of expectations, active video game play, stress, and risk.

    “These triggers and states include novelty and other violations of expectations (Costa, Tran, Turchi, & Averbeck, 2014;Duzel, Bunzeck, Guitart-Masip, & Duzel, 2010;Murty & Adcock, 2014), active video game play (Koepp et al., 1998), stress (Lighthall, Gorlik, Schoeke, Frank, & Mather, 2013), and risk (Schultz, 2010).”
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    Premisecitation

    Higher self-efficacy is associated with greater attention to task error cues and greater response accuracy during task execution with faster reaction time during more difficult or incongruent task conditions.

    “Higher self-efficacy was associated with greater attention to task error cues (Themanson et al., 2008) and greater response accuracy during task execution with faster reaction time (RT) during more difficult or incongruent task conditions (Themanson & Rosen, 2015).”
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    Interpretationcitation

    Low personal expectations for a positive outcome may activate conflicting responses or act as a self-invoking trigger, inviting task-incompatible concerns, anxiety, negative affective reactions, and neuromuscular activity, necessitating resource deployment to self-regulation and recovery.

    “Of course, the obverse may be true: low personal expectations for a positive outcome may activate conflicting responses or act in the manner of a selfinvoking trigger (see section on”
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    • cites McKay, Wulf, & Lewthwaite, 2015 source

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    Premisecitation

    In Parkinson's disease patients, verbal information about the probability of receiving levodopa altered outcome expectations; the group led to believe they had a 75% chance of levodopa receipt experienced dopamine release in ventral and dorsal striata consistent with measured dopaminergic responses to actual levodopa.

    “The group led to believe they had a strong but not certain (75%) expectation of levodopa receipt experienced dopamine release in their ventral and dorsal striata consistent with their measured dopamingeric responses to actual levodopa.”
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    • cites Lidstone et al., 2010

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    Premisecitation

    Expectancies can influence performance through proactive effects on effort expenditure and on perception.

    “For example, expectancies can influence performance through proactive effects on effort expenditure (Fiorio, Andani, Marotta, Classen, & Tinazzi, 2014;Hutchinson et al., 2008) and on perception (Abrams & Weidler, 2015;Chauvel et al., 2015;Piedimonte, Benedetti & Carlino, 2015;Witt, South, & Sugovic, 2014).”
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    Premisecitation

    Participants given a choice regarding pole use felt less nervous and were less concerned about their body positions.

    “Questionnaire results in that study revealed that participants who were given a choice regarding the use of the pole felt less nervous and were less concerned about their body positions.”
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    • cites Chiviacowsky et al., 2012 source

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    Premisecitation

    Dopaminergic systems subserve brain activity relevant to motor, cognitive, and motivational functioning and include the mesocortical, mesolimbic, and nigrostriatal dopaminergic systems.

    “Dopaminergic systems subserve brain activity relevant to motor, cognitive, and motivational functioning and include the mesocortical, mesolimbic (often combined into the mesocorticolimbic), and nigrostriatal dopamingeric systems (Nieoullon & Coquerel, 2003;Wise, 2004).”
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    Premisecitation

    The way task instructions are worded-autonomy-supportive or controlling-influences motor learning, perhaps through the down-regulatory effect of cortisol on the brain's reward circuitry.

    “The way in which task instructions are worded-that is, whether the language is autonomy-supportive or controlling-has been shown to influence motor learning (Hooyman, Wulf, & Lewthwaite, 2014), perhaps through the down-regulatory effect of cortisol on the brain's reward circuitry (Montoya, Bos, Terburg, Rosenberger, & van Honk, 2014).”
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    • cites Hooyman, Wulf, & Lewthwaite, 2014 source

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    • cites Montoya et al., 2014 source

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    Premisecitation

    Occasional risks to expected rewards (challenge) can transiently dampen extant levels of reward-related dopamine but amplify the impact of subsequent positive (but not negative) cues, strengthening the learning effect.

    “Occasional risks to expected rewards (i.e., challenge) can transiently dampen the extant levels of rewardrelated dopamine but amplify the impact of subsequent Fig. 3 Schematic of the OPTIMAL theory positive (but not negative) cues, strengthening the learning effect (Schultz, 2010(Schultz, , 2013)).”
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    • cites Schultz, 2010 source

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    Premisecitation

    Observational learning-watching another performer demonstrate a goal movement-is a commonly used and effective way of learning motor skills.

    “Observational learning, that is, watching another performer demonstrate a goal movement, is a commonly used and effective way of learning motor skills (for reviews, see Maslovat, Hayes, Horn, & Hodges, 2010;Ong & Hodges, 2012).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Maslovat et al., 2010 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Ong & Hodges, 2012

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Allowing individuals to exercise control over the environment may satisfy a basic psychological need and may be a biological necessity.

    “Allowing individuals to exercise control over the environment may not only satisfy a basic psychological need (Deci & Ryan, 2000;2008;White, 1959) but may be a biological necessity (Leotti & Delgado, 2011;Leotti, Iyengar, Ochsner, 2010).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Deci & Ryan, 2000 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites White, 1959

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Leotti & Delgado, 2011 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The mesolimbic dopaminergic system is associated with the reward or motivation system and is centered in the subcortical ventral striatum, including the nucleus accumbens, ventral tegmental area, and globus pallidus.

    “The mesolimbic dopaminergic system is associated with the reward or motivation system (a component of the salience network; Menon, 2015, see later section on”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Menon, 2015 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The nigrostriatal system receives projections from the mesolimbic system, which may interact with the motor system, including the primary motor cortex, via other direct and indirect pathways.

    “Importantly, the latter system receives projections from the former (Draganski,B.,Kherif, F., Kloppel, S.,Cook, P. A.,Alexander,D.C., Parker et al., 2008;Schmidt, Lebreton, Clery-Melin, Daunizeau, & Pessiglioni, 2012;Yin, Ostlund, Balleine, 2008), which may interact with the motor system, including the primary motor cortex, via other direct and indirect pathways (Hosp, Pekanovic, Rioult-Pedotti, &”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Draganski et al., 2008 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Schmidt et al., 2012

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Hosp et al., 2011 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationcitation

    The potentiating effect of success with challenge on the strength of the resultant dopamine response may give rise to a variety of beneficial learning and memory effects often attributed to challenge or task difficulty per se.

    “It is conceivable that the potentiating effect of success with challenge on the strength of the resultant dopamine response may give rise to a variety of beneficial learning and memory effects often attributed to challenge or task difficulty per se (Lee, Swinnen, & Serrien, 1994).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Lee, Swinnen, & Serrien, 1994 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Evidence suggests that an internal focus leads to a constrained motor system, or freezing of degrees of freedom, whereas an external focus seems to free those degrees of freedom.

    “Evidence suggests that an internal focus indeed leads to a constrained motor system, or”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Vereijken, van Emmerik, Whiting, & Newell, 1992

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Autonomy is associated with greater self-regulatory responsiveness to task errors than controlling motivation and conditions, and via mediation, with better performance.

    “Autonomy was associated with greater self-regulatory responsiveness to task errors than controlling motivation and conditions, and in meditational analysis, to better performance.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Legault & Inzlicht, 2013 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Autonomy support directly affects performance and indirectly contributes to goal-action coupling by enhancing performance expectancies.

    “Thus, autonomy support directly affects performance and indirectly contributes to goal-action coupling by enhancing performance expectancies.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Psychological stress and/or subsequent control attempts would be expected to take attentional capacity away from the task and result in degraded learning.

    “Psychological stress and/or subsequent control attempts would be expected to take attentional capacity away from the task and result in degraded learning.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Autonomy-supportive conditions facilitate performance and enhance perceptions of competence, self-efficacy, and sense of agency.

    “Potential consequences of autonomy-supportive conditions include facilitation of performance (Karsh & Eitam, 2015;Legault & Inzlicht, 2013) as well as the opportunity to enhance perceptions of competence, self-efficacy, and sense of agency (Chambon & Haggard, 2012).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Karsh & Eitam, 2015 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Legault & Inzlicht, 2013 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Chambon & Haggard, 2012 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    A controlling instructional style increased salivary cortisol, whereas an autonomy-supportive style decreased it relative to a neutral style.

    “Even though Reeve and Tseng did not assess performance on the puzzle task, designed to be unsolvable in the provided time, the controlling instructional style increased salivary cortisol, whereas an autonomysupportive style decreased it relative to a neutral style.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Reeve & Tseng, 2011 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Choice of exercise order can increase performers' willingness to complete more repetitions, which may provide an additional indirect benefit to learning.

    “In addition, choice of exercise order can increase performers' willingness to complete more repetitions (Wulf, Freitas, & Tandy, 2014), which may provide an additional indirect benefit to learning.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Wulf, Freitas, & Tandy, 2014

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Murayama and colleagues demonstrated an undermining effect of reward on subsequent free choice behavior and neural activation, finding more limited engagement and reduced activation in the anterior striatum, midbrain, and lateral prefrontal cortex following reward.

    “Recently, Murayama and colleagues demonstrated the undermining effect of reward on subsequent free choice behavior and neural activation, finding more limited engagement in the task and reduced activation in the anterior striatum, midbrain, and lateral prefrontal cortex following reward (Murayama, Matsumoto, Izuma, & Matsumoto, 2010).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Murayama, Matsumoto, Izuma, & Matsumoto, 2010 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The broad impact of autonomy support on motor learning suggests it may exert its influence in various ways.

    “Its broad impact on motor learning seems to suggest that autonomy support may exert its influence in various ways.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Given people's psychological and presumably biological need for autonomy, controlling environments tend to induce stress and self-regulatory attempts at controlling emotional responses.

    “Given people's psychological and presumably biological need for autonomy (Deci & Ryan, 2000, 2008;Leotti et al., 2010), controlling environments tend to induce stress (Reeve & Tseng, 2011) and, presumably as a result, self-regulatory attempts at controlling emotional responses.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Deci & Ryan, 2000, 2008

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Leotti et al., 2010 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Reeve & Tseng, 2011 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    These results support the idea that learning is degraded in situations that do not meet learners' need for autonomy, in part because self-regulatory activity in response to external control attempts interferes with learning.

    “These results lend support to the idea that learning is degraded in situations that do not meet learners' need for autonomy, in part because self-regulatory activity in response to external control attempts interferes with learning.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Suggested explanations for learning benefits of granting control include deeper processing of relevant information, error estimation, self-regulation strategies, and increased motivation.

    “For example, it has been suggested that a more active involvement of the learner in the learning process promotes deeper processing of relevant information (McCombs, 1989;Watkins, 1984;Chen & Singer, 1992); encourages error estimation (Chiviacowsky & Wulf, 2005); fosters the use of self-regulation strategies (Kirschenbaum, 1984); or that giving the learner control over the practice conditions”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites McCombs, 1989 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Watkins, 1984 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Chen & Singer, 1992

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationcitation

    The results emphasize how important the self is.

    “These findings highlight the importance of the self”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Attempts to integrate positive motivational and external attentional approaches to enhance goal-action coupling could improve performance outcomes.

    “Efforts to consider how to facilitate goal-action coupling from positive motivational and external attentional approaches might optimize performers' results.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Mindfulness meditation may increase susceptibility to false memories, possibly suggesting that attention to some task-relevant foci could be impaired.

    “Wilson and colleagues recently identified a potential unintended consequence of mindfulness meditation-increased susceptibility to false memories, possibly suggesting that attention to some task-relevant foci could be impaired (Wilson, Mickes, Stolarz-Fantino, Evrard, & Fantino, 2015).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Wilson, Mickes, Stolarz-Fantino, Evrard, & Fantino, 2015

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Many aspects of motor skills can be and presumably are learned implicitly, including regularities in environmental stimuli and balance skills, and implicit learning can be more effective than explicit learning.

    “Many aspects of motor skills can be and presumably are learned implicitly, including regularities in environmental stimuli and balance skills, and it has been shown that implicit learning can be more effective than explicit learning (Green & Flowers, 1991;Shea, Wulf, Whitacre, & Park, 2001;Wulf & Schmidt, 1997).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Green & Flowers, 1991 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Shea, Wulf, Whitacre, & Park, 2001 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Wulf & Schmidt, 1997

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    An external focus facilitates automaticity in movement control, which generally produces more effective performance (e.g., movement accuracy, balance, maximum force production) than an internal focus.

    “By facilitating automaticity in movement control, an external focus generally results in more effective performance (e.g., movement accuracy, balance, maximum force production) than does a counterpart internal focus.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The mPFC is linked to self-related capacities maintained across space and time, reflecting the self.

    “The mPFC seems to be linked to a variety of self-related capacities that are maintained across space and time, reflecting the self (Gallagher, 2000).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Gallagher, 2000 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Enhanced expectancies (and related autonomy) and attentional focus direct movers toward their action goals.

    “Both enhanced expectancies (and related autonomy) and attentional focus direct movers with relative clarity toward their action goals.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The default mode network typically does not overlap with functional groupings involved in goal-directed and motor tasks.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Mindfulness training leads to improved decision making.

    “Moreover, mindfulness training has been shown to lead to improved decision making (Hafenbrack, Kinias, & Barsade, 2013).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Hafenbrack, Kinias, & Barsade, 2013 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Self-referential processing occurs in brain structures at the cortical midline, particularly the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC).

    “Self-referential processing has been shown to occur in brain structures at the cortical midline, in particular the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) (Amodio & Frith, 2006;Eisenberger, Lieberman, & Satpute, 2005; for a review, see Northoff et al., 2006).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Amodio & Frith, 2006 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Eisenberger, Lieberman, & Satpute, 2005 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Northoff et al., 2006 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Clearing the mind from distracting or self-related thoughts may be helpful, but an affirmative external focus on relevant movement effects may be even more beneficial.

    “Thus, clearing the mind from distracting or self-related thoughts may be helpful, but an affirmative external focus on relevant movement effects may potentially be even more beneficial.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Shorter reaction times for the external relative to the internal focus group corroborate the view that an external focus speeds the learning process by facilitating automaticity.

    “Importantly, shorter reaction times for the external relative to the internal focus group corroborated the view that an external focus speeds the learning process by facilitating automaticity.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Mindfulness is linked to reductions in stress and negative affect.

    “Mindfulness, a state of non-judgmental awareness of the present moment (Brown & Ryan, 2003), has been linked to reductions in stress and negative affect (Taren, Gianaros, Greco, Lindsay, Fairgrieve, Brown et al., 2015).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Taren, Gianaros, Greco, Lindsay, Fairgrieve, Brown et al., 2015

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Mindfulness training is related to enhanced balance performance resulting from greater automaticity in movement control.

    “Mindfulness training has been related to enhanced balance performance resulting from greater automaticity in movement control (Kee et al., 2012).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kee et al., 2012 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationcitation

    The motor system's remarkable coordination capabilities seen with an external focus of attention are presumably a reflection of the effectiveness of implicit processes.

    “Indeed, the motor system's remarkable coordination capabilities seen with an external focus of attention are presumably a reflection of the effectiveness of implicit processes (Wulf, Höß, & Prinz, 1998).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Wulf, Höß, & Prinz, 1998 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    An external focus plays a dual role by directing attention to the task goal and reducing focus on the self.

    “We suggest that an external relative to an internal focus plays a dual role by (a) directing attention to the task goal and (b) reducing a focus on the self.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    Instructions should be kept to a minimum as they increase the likelihood that learners reinvest acquired knowledge and engage in conscious control processes that interfere with automatic execution.

    “Therefore, instructions should be kept to a minimum as they increase the likelihood that learners”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Self-referential processing is a significant aspect of the brain's default mode of operation.

    “Self-referential processing appears to be a significant aspect of the brain's default mode of operation (Brewer, Worhunskya, Gray, Tang, Weber, & Kober, 2011;Buckner, Andrews-Hanna, & Schacter, 2008).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Brewer, Worhunskya, Gray, Tang, Weber, & Kober, 2011 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Buckner, Andrews-Hanna, & Schacter, 2008 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Good movement outcomes boost self-efficacy and positive affect, which reinforce good performance, creating a virtuous cycle that benefits learning and motivation.

    “These in turn will further promote self-efficacy and positive affect that helps solidify good performance, resulting in a virtuous cycle with overall positive consequences for learning and motivation.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Anticipation of success leads to future success.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    An external focus of attention is a critical element in the coupling of goals and actions, whereas an internal focus directs attention to the self, thereby degrading performance.

    “An external focus of attention is a critical element in the coupling of goals and actions, whereas an internal focus directs attention to the self, thereby degrading performance (Predictions 4 and 5).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The default mode network typically does not overlap with functional groupings involved in goal-directed and motor tasks.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Strength of functional connectivity in resting-state networks reflects a history of task-relevant coactivation, with stronger coherence for regions coactivated during task.

    “It has been argued that the strength of the functional connectivity in resting-state networks reflects a history of task-relevant coactivation, with stronger coherence in spontaneous activity at rest for regions that were coactivated or fired together during the task (Corbetta, 2012).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Corbetta, 2012 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • Rests on an assumption: Correlated low-level oscillatory resonance of activity patterns in participating regions can be observed at rest when regions have operated in concert.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In the study by McKay et al. (2015), throwing accuracy was degraded on block 2 for the self group, whereas the control group's accuracy remained unchanged.

    “As a result, throwing accuracy was degraded on block 2, whereas that of a control group remained unchanged.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites McKay, Wulf, Lewthwaite, and Nordin, 2015 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Salience network comprises cortical and subcortical regions with roles in detecting salient events and integrating cognitive, emotional, motivational, motor, and interoceptive signals into response selection.

    “The salience network comprises cortical (anterior insula and dorsal anterior cingulate cortex) and subcortical (amygdala, ventral striatum, including nucleus accumbens, and substantia nigra/ventral tegmental area) regions with diverse roles in detecting events salient to the organism, and integrating cognitive, emotional, motivational, motor, and interoceptive signals into response selection (Fl”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Floresco, 2015 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Menon, 2015 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Sridharan, Levitin, & Menon, 2008 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    These factors contribute to successful outcomes by strengthening the coupling of performers' goals to their movement actions, presumably operating in complementary ways.

    “We contend that these factors contribute to successful outcomes by strengthening the coupling of performers' goals to their movement actions, presumably operating in complementary ways.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Functional connectivity is related to motor skill learning and higher levels of motor skill.

    “Importantly, functional connectivity is related to motor skill learning (Albert et al., 2009;Song, Gotts, Dayan, & Cohen, 2015) and to higher levels of motor skill (Di, Zhu, Jin, Wang, Ye, Zhou et al., 2012;Ito, Matsuda, & Shimojo, 2015;Kim, Han, Kim, & Han, 2015;Milton, Solodkin, Hluštík, & Small, 2007;Li, He, Huang, Zhang, Lu, Lai et al., 2015).”
    • Also stated in: § Mechanisms for attentional focus effects · plain
      “Functional connectivity tracks the learning of motor skills, and more distinct functional connections are associated with higher skill (Kim, Chang, Kim, Seo, Ryu, Lee et al., 2014;Milton et al., 2007).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Albert et al., 2009 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Song, Gotts, Dayan, & Cohen, 2015

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Kim, Chang, Kim, Seo, Ryu, Lee et al., 2014

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Poor performance or little improvement and perceptions of effort lead to further decreases in self-efficacy and positive affect, increased self-focus, resulting in a vicious cycle and suboptimal learning.

    “Moreover, indirect consequences resulting from poor performance or little performance improvement, and learners' perceptions of effort might lead to further decreases in self-efficacy and positive affect, increased self-focus, etc.—essentially resulting in a vicious cycle and less-than-optimal learning.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Clusters of brain regions involved in motor learning can be recognized at rest and in-task.

    “Clusters of brain regions involved in motor learning can be recognized, both at rest (Albert, Robertson, & Miall, 2009;Biswal, Yetkin, Haughton, & Hyde, 1995;Wu, Srinivasan, Kaur, & Cramer, 2014) and in-task (Hasan et al., 2013).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Albert, Robertson, & Miall, 2009 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Biswal, Yetkin, Haughton, & Hyde, 1995 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Wu, Srinivasan, Kaur, & Cramer, 2014 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Default mode network is spontaneously active when other systems are passive, but does not always deactivate when task-positive networks are active.

    “As its name implies, the default mode network is spontaneously active when other systems are passive, although it does not always deactivate when other so-called task-positive or attentional networks are active (Raichle, 2015).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Raichle, 2015 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The vicious cycle scenario may lead to lack of interest in practicing or learning new skills and activity avoidance.

    “Ultimately, this scenario may lead to a lack of interest in practicing or learning new skills, and perhaps activity avoidance.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Default mode network is a key functional network pertaining to cognition, including long-term planning, mind wandering, and self-referential thought.

    “The default mode network is a key functional network, centering brain activity, and pertaining to cognition, including diverse functions such as long-term planning, mind wandering, and self-referential thought (Buckner, 2012;Buckner, et al., 2008;Gusnard, Akbudak, Shulman, & Raichle, 2001).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Buckner, 2012

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Buckner, et al., 2008 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Gusnard, Akbudak, Shulman, & Raichle, 2001

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Greater performance expectancies and a sense of autonomy would probably raise learners' self-efficacy.

    “In this case, enhanced performance expectancies and perceptions of autonomy would likely increase learners' self-efficacy.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
92 of 92

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Expectations are among the motivational variables that can exert influence through implicit means.

    “Importantly, we presume that expectations are among the motivational variables that can exert influence through implicit means (e.g., stereotype threats, goals), although deliberative, explicit, forms of these variables were originally described (Bandura, 1977;Deci & Ryan, 1985).”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Dopamine neurons predominantly signal positive reward and expected success, while a smaller set of dopamine neurons responds to negative signals.

    “While dopamine neurons predominantly signal some manner of positive reward and expected success is therefore important, a smaller set of dopamine neurons is responsive to negative signals.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The nigrostriatal dopaminergic system, centered in the dorsal striatum, is associated with working memory and motor system functions such as motor planning and response selection.

    “The nigrostriatal dopaminergic system, centered in the dorsal striatum, has been associated with working memory and motor system functions, such as motor planning and response selection.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Learners who control feedback delivery typically ask for feedback when they believe their performance was relatively successful.

    “Indeed, learners able to control the delivery of feedback, typically report asking for feedback when they assumed their performance was relatively successful.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    A person's attentional focus often has a similar influence on performance during practice and on learning as measured by retention or transfer tests.

    “A person's attentional focus often has a similar influence on performance during the practice phase when focus instructions are given, and learning, as measured by retention or transfer tests.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The undermining effect of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation reflects the controlling aspects of reward on behavior.

    “It is assumed to reflect the controlling aspects of reward on behavior.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Correlated low-level oscillatory resonance of activity patterns in participating regions can be observed at rest when regions have operated in concert.

    “Correlated low-level oscillatory resonance of activity patterns in participating regions can be observed at rest when regions have operated in concert.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The default mode network typically does not overlap with functional groupings involved in goal-directed and motor tasks.

    “The default mode network typically does not overlap with functional groupings involved in goal-directed and motor tasks.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Anticipation of success leads to future success.

    “Paraphrasing the saying linking current success to future success, the anticipation of success breeds success and the presence of dopamine, which supports the development of skill.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Dopamine supports the development of motor skill.

    “Paraphrasing the saying linking current success to future success, the anticipation of success breeds success and the presence of dopamine, which supports the development of skill.”
10 of 10

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Cites

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15 of the 374 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.

Research works printed but not linked: 3

  1. Chen, D. D., Hendrick, J. L., & Lidor, R. (2002). Enhancing self-controlled learning environments: The use of self-regulated feedback information. Journal of Human Movement Studies, 43, 69–86.
  2. Loosch, E. (1995). Funktionelle Variabilität in Dartwurf (Functional variability in dart throwing). Sportwissenschaft, 25, 417–425.
  3. Saemi, E., Wulf, G., Varzaneh, A. G., & Zarghami, M. (2011). Feedback after good versus poor trials enhances motor learning in children. Revista Brasileira de Educação Física e Esporte (Brazilian Journal of Physical Education and Sport), 25, 671–679.

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Related

Authors
Wulf, G., & Lewthwaite, R.
Affiliations
  • University of Nevada, Las Vegas (US)
  • University of Southern California (US)
Corresponding author
Wulf, Gabriele
ORCID
Wulf, Gabriele
Venue
Psychonomic Bulletin & Review
Publisher
Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published
2016-01-29
Volume
23
Issue
5
Pages
1382-1414
ISSN
  • 1069-9384 (ISSN-L)
  • 1531-5320
DOI
10.3758/s13423-015-0999-9
OpenAlex
W2342925794
Semantic Scholar
8dc9d689d28ad122740d400ad76852edc244f391
Cited by
1,238
References
374
Citations by year
2026: 204 · 2025: 152 · 2024: 165 · 2023: 124 · 2022: 129 · 2021: 146 · 2020: 118 · 2019: 92 · 2018: 54 · 2017: 38 · 2016: 10 · 2015: 3 · 2014: 1 · 2012: 1
FWCI
12.01
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
Locations
  • Psychonomic Bulletin & Review (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Sport Psychology and Performance
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Motor Control and Adaptation
  • Health Sciences › Health Professions › Physical Therapy, Sports Therapy and Rehabilitation › Sports and Physical Education Research
Keywords
motor learning, intrinsic motivation, attentional focus, external focus, expectancy effects, learner autonomy, dopamine, optimal theory, skill acquisition, memory consolidation, brain networks, practice conditions
MeSH terms
Attention, Humans, Learning, Motivation, Motor Activity, Psychomotor Performance

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-08.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-08.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

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