Employment and Recidivism on Federal Probation: A Comparison between Whites and Native Americans under Supervision
Open accessAbstract
Despite extensive research on the impact of employment on offending and recidivism, little is known about how it influences the recidivism of Native Americans. In this study, we compare the likelihood of recidivism by race, examining the difference between Whites and Native Americans on Federal Probation in a Western state. Compared to Whites, Native Americans have a higher risk of recidivism and are less likely to be employed at the beginning of probation supervision. Ultimately, employment fully mediates the impact of race on recidivism. We discuss our findings within the broader context of systemic barriers to employment for Native Americans.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The text we found for this paper looks like another document, so the self-check wasn’t run.
Cites
Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.51.6.1173 · Cited by 91,542 · see citing works
Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.51.6.1173 · Cited by 91,532 · see citing works
Bertrand, M., & Mullainathan, S. (2004) · American Economic Review · doi:10.1257/0002828042002561 · Cited by 4,504 · see citing works
Hirschi, T. (2017) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315081649 · Cited by 3,076 · see citing works
Pager, D. (2003) · American Journal of Sociology · doi:10.1086/374403 · Cited by 2,840 · see citing works
Crime in the Making: Pathways and Turning Points Through Life
SAMPSON, R. J., & LAUB, J. H. (1993) · Crime & Delinquency · doi:10.1177/0011128793039003010 · Cited by 2,793 · see citing works
Comparing Regression Coefficients Between Same-sample Nested Models Using Logit and Probit
Karlson, K., Holm, A., & Breen, R. (2012) · Sociological Methodology · doi:10.1177/0081175012444861 · Cited by 1,230 · see citing works
Uggen, C. (2000) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.1177/000312240006500403 · Cited by 1,079 · see citing works
Reentry and the Ties that Bind: An Examination of Social Ties, Employment, and Recidivism
Berg, M. T., & Huebner, B. M. (2010) · Justice Quarterly · doi:10.1080/07418825.2010.498383 · Cited by 527 · see citing works
PREDICTING WHO REOFFENDS: THE NEGLECTED ROLE OF NEIGHBORHOOD CONTEXT IN RECIDIVISM STUDIES*
Kubrin, C. E., & Stewart, E. (2006) · Criminology · doi:10.1111/j.1745-9125.2006.00046.x · Cited by 496 · see citing works
Incarceration, prisoner reentry, and communities
Morenoff, J. D., & Harding, D. J. (2014) · Annual Review of Sociology · doi:10.1146/annurev-soc-071811-145511 · Cited by 269 · see citing works
Risk, Race, and Recidivism: Predictive Bias and Disparate Impact
Skeem, J., & Lowenkamp, C. T. (2016) · Criminology · doi:10.1111/1745-9125.12123 · Cited by 217 · see citing works
Is Employment Associated With Reduced Recidivism?
Tripodi, S. J., Kim, J. S., & Bender, K. (2009) · International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology · doi:10.1177/0306624x09342980 · Cited by 162 · see citing works
A Systematic Review of Age, Sex, Ethnicity, and Race as Predictors of Violent Recidivism
Piquero, A. R., Jennings, W. G., Diamond, B., & Reingle, J. M. (2013) · International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology · doi:10.1177/0306624x13514733 · Cited by 119 · see citing works
Post-release Employment and Recidivism in Norway
Skarðhamar, T., & Telle, K. E. (2012) · Journal of Quantitative Criminology · doi:10.1007/s10940-012-9166-x · Cited by 114 · see citing works
The Effect of Correctional Education on Postrelease Employment and Recidivism
Lockwood, S. K., Nally, J. M., Ho, T., & Knutson, K. (2012) · Crime & Delinquency · doi:10.1177/0011128712441695 · Cited by 112 · see citing works
Racial Disparities in Job Finding and Offered Wages
Fryer, R. G., Pager, D., & Spenkuch, J. L. (2011) · The Journal of Law and Economics · doi:10.1086/673323 · Cited by 111 · see citing works
Examining Probation Violations: Who, What, and When
Gray, M. K., Fields, M., & Maxwell, S. R. (2001) · Crime & Delinquency · doi:10.1177/0011128701047004003 · Cited by 111 · see citing works
Apel, R. J., & Horney, J. (2017) · Criminology · doi:10.1111/1745-9125.12134 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
Systemic Discrimination Among Large U.S. Employers
Kline, P., Rose, E. K., & Walters, C. (2021) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w29053 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
Yukhnenko, D., Blackwood, N., & Fazel, S. (2019) · CNS Spectrums · doi:10.1017/s1092852919001056 · Cited by 101 · see citing works
Exploring the validity of the Level of Service Inventory-Revised with Native American offenders
Holsinger, A. M., Lowenkamp, C. T., & Latessa, E. J. (2006) · Journal of Criminal Justice · doi:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2006.03.009 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
Mass Probation from Micro to Macro: Tracing the Expansion and Consequences of Community Supervision
Phelps, M. S. (2019) · Annual Review of Criminology · doi:10.1146/annurev-criminol-011419-041352 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
Not Just Any Job Will Do: A Study on Employment Characteristics and Recidivism Risks After Release
Ramakers, A., Nieuwbeerta, P., van Wilsem, J., & Dirkzwager, A. (2016) · International journal of offender therapy and comparative criminology · doi:10.1177/0306624x16636141 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
The Effect of Racial Inequality on Black Male Recidivism
Reisig, M. D., Bales, W. D., Hay, C., & Wang, X. (2007) · Justice Quarterly · doi:10.1080/07418820701485387 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
Eisenberg, M., van Horn, J. V., Dekker, J., Assink, M., van der Put, C. E., Hendriks, J., & Stams, G. (2019) · Criminal Justice and Behavior · doi:10.1177/0093854819826109 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Risk prediction and re-offending: Aboriginal and non-aboriginal offenders.
Bonta, J. L., LaPrairie, C. P., & Wallace‐Capretta, S. (1997) · Cited by 84 · see citing works
BAN THE BOX TO PROMOTE EX‐OFFENDER EMPLOYMENT
Henry, J. S., & Jacobs, J. B. (2007) · Criminology & Public Policy · doi:10.1111/j.1745-9133.2007.00470.x · Cited by 83 · see citing works
Ethnic Identity, Stereotype Threat, and Perceived Discrimination Among Native American Adolescents
Jaramillo, J., Mello, Z. R., & Worrell, F. C. (2015) · Journal of Research on Adolescence · doi:10.1111/jora.12228 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Benedict, W. R., & Huff‐Corzine, L. (1997) · Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency · doi:10.1177/0022427897034002004 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Young, I. P., & Fox, J. A. (2002) · Educational Administration Quarterly · doi:10.1177/001316102237671 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Reservation Wages: An Analysis of the Effects of Reservations on Employment of American Indian Men
Gitter, R. J., & Reagan, P. B. (2002) · American Economic Review · doi:10.1257/00028280260344696 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
(2016) · International Journal of Criminal Justice Sciences · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Button, P., & Walker, B. (2017) · Labour Economics · doi:10.1016/j.labeco.2020.101851 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Jaynes, C. M. (2020) · Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency · doi:10.1177/0022427820918899 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Vigesaa, L. E. (2013) · Journal of Ethnicity in Criminal Justice · doi:10.1080/15377938.2013.739384 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Jaynes, C. M. (2022) · Journal of Developmental and Life-Course Criminology · doi:10.1007/s40865-022-00188-w · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Bellair, P. E., Lopez, S. H., LaPlant, E. G., Vuolo, M., & Apel, R. J. (2023) · Crime & Delinquency · doi:10.1177/00111287221140838 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
How probation practices vary across rural, suburban, and urban contexts
Scott, D., & Boyer, J. L. (2023) · Rural Society · doi:10.1080/10371656.2023.2270850 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Peters, D. J., Hochstetler, A., Delisi, M., & Kuo, H.-J. (2014) · Journal of quantitative criminology · doi:10.1007/s10940-014-9229-2
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Employability Perceptions: does a reference from probation reduce rejection rates?
Lewis, M., Gavin, P., & Porter, C. N. (2025) · International journal of law, crime and justice · doi:10.1016/j.ijlcj.2025.100785 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
- Authors
- Tuttle, J., Heirigs, M. H., & Bunch, J. M.
- Affiliations
- University of Montana (US)
- Corresponding author
- Heirigs, Mark H.
- Venue
- Journal of Crime and Justice
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2024-02-12
- Volume
- 47
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 678-691
- ISSN
- 0735-648X (ISSN-L)
- 2158-9119
- OpenAlex
- W4391754177
- Cited by
- 1
- References
- 39
- Citations by year
- 2025: 1
- FWCI
- 0.72
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Journal of Crime and Justice (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- United States Federal Probation
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Criminal Justice and Corrections Analysis
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Crime Patterns and Interventions
- Social Sciences › Law › Criminal Justice and Penology
- Keywords
- recidivism, federal probation, employment, Native Americans, racial differences, probation supervision, mediation, barriers to employment, American West
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-27.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review